CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems

During 2008-2009 progress has occurred on several fronts. A field research program has commenced on priority research topics identified by project scientists and local extension officers and farmers. Policy and institutional settings have been further studied through two detailed field trips. An approach for analysing household livelihoods will be based on previous ACIAR funded research in Indonesia. Details are outlined below.
A workshop held in Qingyang in April 2009 identified research topics for on-farm research during the current growing season. Farmers, local extension officers, Chinese and Australian project staff participated in research priority identification. Detailed research protocols were developed and implemented in the following areas:
Evaluation of alternative forage crop species in each of three research locations.
Identification of lucerne management and harvest practices for improved quantity and quality of forage.
Exploration of winter wheat as a dual purpose grain and graze forage option.
Identification of improved ration mixes for sheep and goats utilising available feed resources.
Two extensive field trips in the study region have characterised current policy and intuitional settings relevant to local livestock enterprises. A greatly improved understanding of the complex and sometimes conflicting policies that relate to livestock production has emerged. An important finding relevant to both researchers and policy makers is the challenge of connecting local household livestock producers to livestock markets.
A workshop held in St. Lucia, Australia in August 2008 evaluated alternative analytical approaches to understanding livestock production from integrated crop - livestock farming systems. The key characteristics of the local Gansu system include a diverse range of potential forage sources and crop residues, pen feeding of sheep and goats, severely constrained land resources, constrained labour resources, climate variability and market uncertainty. The Integrated Analysis Tool (IAT), developed in previous ACIAR projects, was selected as the main framework for analysing household livelihoods in this project. The IAT will require significant development, for example inclusion of sheep and goats and local forage and crop options, before it can be applied to local farming system issues.

During 2009-2010 significant progress has been made under Objective 1, implementing a participatory research program into forage production and livestock growth; Objective 2, analysis of institutional and policy settings; and Objective 3, developing capacity for analysing crop-livestock farming systems. Work on Objective 4, evaluation of productivity and resource-use efficiency under farmer-managed conditions will commence in 2010-2011.
A series of forage agronomy experiments were conducted during the 2009 and 2010 seasons under Objective 1. The experiments included; lucerne harvest time, lucerne cutting height, dual purpose (grain and graze) winter wheat, and a comparison of annual forage crops. All experiments were conducted as part of a Masters or PhD postgraduate research project enrolled with Lanzhou University. Highlights from the 2009 season include a significant opportunity for increasing harvestable lucerne forage by shifting to a harvest schedule based on appearance of first-flower, a large grain yield penalty from grazing winter wheat, and higher yield potential from summer forage crops compared to winter forages. Research is proceeding in 2010.
In addition, a cashmere goat feeding trial evaluated the influence of different proportions of lucerne hay in the diet on liveweight gain of weaned kids. The inclusion of lucerne in the diet increased the rate of liveweight gain compared to a diet comprised only of maize straw and feed concentrate. Once lucerne was included in the diet, liveweight gains increased at a decreasing rate with any additional lucerne. This suggests the possibility of conserving lucerne and feeding out gradually over the year rather than the current practice of feeding lucerne when it is green and growing. Further feeding trials are planned in 2010, focussing on the role of maize silage.
Research on Objective 2 of the project - to identify and analyse institutional and policy settings relevant to crop livestock systems in Qingyang City - has progressed essentially as planned. The significant amount of fieldwork and the detailed policy review required to fulfil this project objective has been conducted, and information has been collated and ordered. An early analysis of this information is reported in Brown et al. (2009), while several other papers that link Objective 2 with other objectives of the project are under development. In doing so, further information gaps have become apparent, especially on how policies and institutions on crop-livestock systems in Qingyang relate to those at higher, especially province and central, levels. Interviews in Beijing in June 2010 aim to fill these information gaps.
At the same time, fieldwork allowed for the identification of other issues that are beyond the scope of the initial policy and institutional analysis but which will impact significantly on the broader project objectives. In particular, as a result of several major external shocks (the global financial crisis and volatile food prices), the period 2007-2009 has been time of major change in agricultural and rural markets and industries in China. Data on broader industry developments and market prices was collated in form suitable for input into the economic modelling component of the project.
As envisioned in the project design, the policy, institutional, market / industry information collated so far is important in defining the broader environment in which the farm-levels analysis of the project is conducted. While these settings have been communicated between project collaborators, and policy-makers have been consulted throughout the course of the project, the more formal policy-science linkage workshops planned for the project have been delayed to commencement in 2011, when more developed project findings can be presented to policy makers, thus forming a two-way exchange that is a key component of the project.
The Integrated Analysis Tool (IAT) has been adapted to local farming systems as part of research activity under Objective 3. Key changes included parameterisation for local breeds of sheep (Tan and Han) and goats (Cashmere, Longdong), and development of forage supply quantities and forage quality for key local forage sources including; lucerne, maize silage, wheat straw and feed concentrates. Initial analyses have focussed on farm land allocation to grain or forage crops, lucerne harvest practices, and comparing different feeding strategies to utilise available feed resources. A complementary analysis will identify feed gaps under traditional farmer practice and strategies for addressing the feed gap through a combination of improving the feed resource base and improving the utilisation of available feed.
The 2010-2011 reporting period will see a gradual shift in research focus towards integrated analysis of whole farm productivity, profitability and resource use efficiency at the household scale. Preliminary IAT land allocation results have been obtained in one of the three sites, and it is expected that by June 2011 modelling results will available for three scenarios in the three project locations. The three scenarios are all linked to small ruminant production and include: different land allocations, higher lucerne yields obtained through optimal harvesting and feed year planning centred on strategic feeding of lucerne. The main interest is whether significant gains in household income can be achieved for only small losses in food supply when alternative lucerne harvesting and feeding strategies are used.

In the past reporting period progress has been made towards better understanding the biophysical and economic processes operating in the project's location. This has been achieved through a) conducting crop and livestock experimental trials b) developing location specific whole-farm models to assess net income income-grain supply tradeoffs between different enterprise mixes and government policies and c) monitoring on-farm practices. This research has been an integrated effort between Lanzhou University students, Lanzhou University staff and Australian scientists. The modelling and interpreting of research results is currently progressing. In the upcoming year there will be an increased interaction between extension agents, farmers and project scientists.
Progress related to the different components of the project is as follows:
A series of forage agronomy experiments were conducted in 2009 and 2010. These experiments highlight how the management of current crops and the adoption of alternative crops can influence livestock feed availability, and hence household livelihoods.
Two cashmere goat feeding trials have now been conducted. One trial evaluated how different proportions of lucerne hay in a diet can influence liveweight gains of weaned kids. The second trial focused on the effect of lucerne quality on the liveweight gains of weaned kids. In 2011-2012 a third experiment will focus on how feeding maize silage influences the liveweight gains of weaned kids.
The Integrated Assessment Tool (IAT) was used to assess changes in net income and food security when households altered their crop-livestock mix to meet government targets. The IAT used three farm types. These farm types were determined using Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis.
A village-level model was developed to help scale up the farm-level analyses. Lucerne-growing subsidies and more integrated livestock feed markets are required if households are to meet livestock development goals.
A feed-demand analysis was conducted to assess if current farming systems can support increased livestock numbers. Results from the IAT and feed-gap analysis are consistent with each other, and highlight the need to increase livestock forage resources.
In relation to the policy-related work, preliminarily results related to the above research were presented to the Huanxian Animal Husbandry Bureau in June 2010. This interaction session created an opportunity for project staff and local officials to interact and exchange ideas in an informal setting. The interaction session had approximately 20 participants. The topics covered included the timing and frequency of feed shortages in current farming systems, potential for implementation of alternative feeding strategies and optimal carrying capacity of local farming systems. There were two main outcomes of the session: a) local extension officers gained a better appreciation of how lucerne can be fed in conjunction with other feed sources to reduce feed deficits b) project staff gained a better appreciation of extension officers' ideas for feed management, including a desire to increase the use of maize silage in local systems. To improve the dissemination of results and increase linkages with policy makers, a more formal policy-science linkage workshop is planned for 2012.
A key component of the past year has been the development of strong linkages between Lanzhou University students, Lanzhou University staff and Australian scientists. These linkages are expected to have a lasting impact on the capabilities of new agricultural researchers in China and to lead to peer-reviewed publications. In addition, the capacity of Chinese counterparts has been enhanced by the Australian Youth Ambassador for Development (Joshua Philip), who has spent approximately one year in Lanzhou. Adam Komarek is spending up to one year in Lanzhou to continue research related to this ACIAR project.

The issue of scale has become paramount for the effective evaluation of watershed development (WSD) programs. This study examines the effectiveness of WSD at meso-scale (1500-10000hectares) in Anantapur and Prakasam districts in Andhra Pradesh. The project enjoys the active support of the AP Department of Rural Development (DRD).
The project has taken the first steps to providing an integrated evaluation model including hydrologic, agronomic, environmental, economic and social equity issues. It is designed to have a number of stand alone input models and to deal with scale from the household to the village and through to the broader watershed scale. The full structure of the model can be obtained from the project team (geoff [dot] syme [at] ecu [dot] edu [dot] au). This model will guide future research and will be iteratively revised as our understanding of the multifaceted, interactive processes evolves and data collection and analysis continues.
Data are currently being gathered of watershed variables in the area, land use, groundwater and surface water resources, population characteristics and so on. A community survey has been prepared to establish WSD outcomes in terms of physical, natural, social, human and financial capitals, and how these change over time in response to climate variability and other drivers. The questionnaire is also designed to assess community resilience and address perceptions of equity and scale.

A] Socio-Economic Progress
Technical and socioeconomic pilots (intensive and extensive field visits) have been conducted in identified or selected districts of Kurnool, Anantapur and Prakasam districts. Two hydrological units were identified for the study. The sample villages were identified in each hydrological unit for carrying out the detailed socioeconomic and livelihood survey. Three program villages and one control village from each unit have been identified i.e., a total of 8 villages spreading over three districts (Table 1).
Villages have been selected at the Upstream; Mid-stream and Down-stream and a matching control village has been selected (Table 2). Qualitative and quantitative tools have been developed- Focus Group Discussions and a survey. Two questionnaires (one at the village level and the other at the household level) have been developed.
The field Instruments were piloted and revised to suit the integrated model and the socioeconomic data. Qualitative information was elicited using the Focus group discussions - four FGDs in each village i.e., a total of 24 FGDs The first round of data collection has been completed in all the sample villages covering 566 households. Data entry is complete.
[B] Hydrology and Land Use
Data on general information, land use, number of water harvesting structures, bore-well water levels and discharge volume, daily rainfall and crop water budgeting for the villages of the selected Hydrological Unit Networks has been procured from the NGO - BIRDS.
NGRI team has just completed the fieldwork at Prakasam and the Anantapur watershed. This included a complete well inventory, water level measurements as well as geophysical logging in the abandoned wells, interviewing people about the scenarios from the
last 15-20 years. The same data has been collected from the second watershed in Gooty. The pre-monsoon (minimum) groundwater levels have been collected and the post-monsoon (maximum) groundwater levels will be collected during the last part of this year. The team is working with DEEPA to clarify apparent data anomalies. Preliminary crop and water use data suitable for the Bayesian Network modelling has been collected.

[C] Integrated Outcomes
An integrated model is being developed that will incorporate crop production and water use and hydrological (surface water and groundwater) models in addition to knowledge gained from extensive household surveys in villages in two case study catchments. The integrated model is expected to link hydrology models with seasonal outputs from crop models. The outputs from the hydrology and crop model feed into socio-economic models together with relevant socio-economic data for the villages. Measures of equity and resilience will be developed to assess differences in outcomes between villages (e.g. upstream, downstream) and within villages (e.g. income groups, gender, land ownership, etc) and changes that over the modelled time period in response to (e.g.) hydrology scenarios. A schematic of the links and scale of the model components is shown below

Project Background: Direct seeding as a method of crop establishment in rice is increasingly common in the Philippines and throughout Asia generally. Concomitant with this shift, however, is a more complex weed problem faced by farmers. Herbicide application has become their first line defence against weeds. Farmers spray herbicides at least once and up to three times per season. There are two rice seasons in the Philippines and hence, farmers spray herbicides up to a maximum of six times per year. This intensive and prolonged herbicide application can cause shifts in weed populations. The development of herbicide resistance is also a potential problem associated with prolonged usage of a single type of herbicide. However, there are limited data available in the Philippines regarding herbicide use, weed shifts and herbicide resistance.
Objective 1. To sample and document farmer's current weed management practices, perceptions (including HR and health risks due to herbicide) and information sources in relation to direct seeded rice in the Philippines.
A survey was designed and implemented in two major rice growing areas, Nueva Ecija and Iloilo, where direct-seeding is used intensively. Preliminary results show that farmers used a combination of cultural practices and herbicides to manage weeds. Land levelling is the most common cultural practice in both provinces.. Almost all farmers used herbicides at least once per season or twice per year. The usage of herbicides from herbicide groups known to have high risk of resistance development is increasing in both provinces. Farmers have little or no knowledge of herbicide resistance. Farmers are concerned about the environmental impact and health hazards associated with herbicide usage.
Objective 2. To test, evaluate and adapt a promising (low herbicide) direct seeded rice production method in farmer's fields in the Philippines.
Participatory on-farm trials have been established in four sites (Rizal and Aliaga in Nueva Ecija in Central Luzon and Barotac Nuevo and Dingle in Iloilo in the Western Visayas). The trials have tested an integrated weed management (IWM) strategy consisting of a combination of good land preparation, intermittent water management, and single herbicide application of a pre- or early post-emergence herbicide. The IWM trial was tested side-by-side with the farmers' current weed management practice. Results obtained from the four sites for the first cropping season were consistent in indicating a better weed control, increased yields, and higher profits with the use of integrated weed management as compared to current farmers' practice. The on-farm trials will be on-going in further seasons and be adapted to local situations in collaboration with farmers and extension workers. Simultaneous with the on-farm trials, farmers' season-long training courses on Integrated Crop Management in Rice were conducted, using a participatory approach. This training aimed to educate farmers on how to manage pests and weeds so they can grow a healthy rice crop for better yields.
Objective 3. To assess the status of herbicide resistance in rice weeds in the Philippines.
Regional awareness of herbicide resistance risks and avenues to report suspected populations has been raised through Philrice extension networks. Preliminary results of the first screening for herbicide resistance of eight populations of Echinochloa crusgalli and E. glabrescens taken from the four project sites indicated possible resistance to butachlor + propanil herbicide. The screening is currently being repeated to confirm the observation. A dose response assay is also being done using the same weed samples.
Objective 4. To develop an economic framework for policy analysis of herbicide resistance and weed management issues in the Philippines and Australia.
A study has been completed on the economics of pre-emptive management by farmers to conserve the herbicide glyphosate and published in Crop Protection (Weersink , Llewellyn & Pannell 2005). A paper to be published in Technological Forecasting and Social Change (D'Emden, Llewellyn & Burton 2005 (in press)) has used duration analysis to show that the decline in the price of glyphosate since the 1990's has caused a significant increase in the adoption of soil-conserving tillage practices in Australia. Another study is identifying the economic surplus gained by growers as a result of the patent-related fall in herbicide price and research that can lead to reduced glyphosate resistance. An initial literature review looking at issues related to conservation of the herbicide resource (particularly from a public good aspect), and modelling approaches that have been used to investigate this, has been completed. It is considered that the conservation of some herbicides and herbicide uses can have a public good component, particularly when the herbicide supports environmentally-beneficial practices and/or herbicide resistance can spread due to weed mobility. It is expected that future work will focus on weed mobility issues, which may be particularly relevant to flooded rice growing systems.

Project Background: Direct seeding as a method of crop establishment in rice is increasingly common in the Philippines and throughout Asia generally. Concomitant with this shift, however, is a more complex weed problem faced by farmers. Herbicide application has become their first line defence against weeds. There are two to three rice seasons in the Philippines and hence, farmers spray herbicides up to a maximum of six times per year. This intensive and prolonged herbicide application can cause shifts in weed populations and the development of herbicide resistance is a potential problem associated with prolonged usage of a single type of herbicide. However, there are limited data available in the Philippines regarding herbicide use, weed shifts and herbicide resistance.
Objective 1. To sample and document farmer's current weed management practices, perceptions (including HR and health risks due to herbicide) and information sources in relation to direct seeded rice in the Philippines.
The results of a survey of 400 rice-growers in two major direct-seeded rice provinces, Nueva Ecija and Iloilo, has highlighted the trend towards greater herbicide reliance and important factors to consider in the R,D&E for integrated weed management. Results showed that almost all of farmers' current weed management practices involved a combination of cultural practices and herbicide use. But, if water availability became a problem, farmers failed to do good land preparation and tended to use more herbicides to control weeds. It was observed that farmers are increasing their use of herbicides that have a higher risk of developing herbicide-resistance. Most farmers were concerned about possible environmental and health hazards associated with herbicide use. None were aware of the possibility of herbicide resistance development from continual use of the same herbicide. Farmers relied on extension personnel from both the government and the chemical companies, and other farmers for their information about weed management.
Objective 2. To test, evaluate and adapt a promising (low herbicide) direct seeded rice production method in farmer's fields in the Philippines.
Participatory on-farm trials have now been running for several seasons at four sites (Rizal and Aliaga in Nueva Ecija in Central Luzon and Barotac Nuevo and Dingle in Iloilo in the Western Visayas). The trials have tested an integrated weed management (IWM) strategy consisting of a combination of good land preparation, intermittent water management, and single herbicide application of a pre- or early post-emergence herbicide. The IWM strategies have been tested side-by-side with the farmers' current weed management practice (Farmers' Practice plots). Better weed control, increased yields, and higher profits were obtained during the Wet Season (WS) 2005 and Dry Season (DS) 2006 with the use of integrated weed management as compared to current farmers' practice. These were consistent with the results obtained during the first cropping season (DS 2005). The on-farm trials will be continued in further seasons and be adapted to local situations in collaboration with farmers and extension workers. Issues to be addressed in further on-farm trials include: the need for an adapted strategy for farms with less reliable water availability; options for a reduction in land preparation time; and row seeding. After successful trials, uptake by the local farmer group members is now beginning to be observed.
Objective 3. To assess the status of herbicide resistance in rice weeds in the Philippines.
The project established a herbicide resistance testing procedure through PhilRice, and via a field survey and a national network of extension/agronomy agents was able to screen a number of populations of major weeds for resistance to important herbicides. The exercise confirmed the existence of the first cases of herbicide resistance in Echinochloa spp. to herbicides butachlor and propanil in the Philippines and has greatly increased awareness of resistance risks and the ongoing capacity to confirm and characterise further cases.
Objective 4. To develop an economic framework for policy analysis of herbicide resistance and weed management issues in the Philippines and Australia.
The survey of growers in the Philippines highlighted the real and perceived likelihood of weed mobility across and between properties. Together with the increasing level of costly forms of resistance in Australian grain growing, this has made research into the economics of herbicide resistance management in the presence of weed (and resistance) mobility a priority. Results from economic analyses so far have begun to demonstrate: the reduced incentive for investment in resistance prevention when gaining resistance from a neighbour is likely; the importance of determining actual resistance risks; and the economic benefits of preventing mobility.

Project Background: Direct seeding as a method of crop establishment in rice is increasingly common in the Philippines and throughout Asia generally. Concomitant with this shift, however, is a more complex weed problem faced by farmers. Herbicide application has become their first line defence against weeds. There are two to three rice seasons in the Philippines and hence, farmers spray herbicides up to a maximum of six times per year. This intensive and prolonged herbicide application can cause shifts in weed populations and the development of herbicide resistance is a potential problem associated with prolonged usage of a single type of herbicide. However, there are limited data available in the Philippines regarding herbicide use, weed shifts and herbicide resistance.
Objective 1. To sample and document farmer's current weed management practices, perceptions (including HR and health risks due to herbicide) and information sources in relation to direct seeded rice in the Philippines.
A survey was conducted to (1) determine the farmer-cooperators' perception of the effectiveness of IWM technology for weed management, (2) determine the uptake of the IWM technology in the farmer-cooperators' fields, and (3) assess diffusion of the IWM technology to other farmers' fields at the midterm of project implementation.
Results indicate that uptake of the IWM technology to the farmer-cooperators is fast. After four seasons involved in the trial, 75% had adopted all components of IWM on their farms. The remaining 25% had adopted it partly. Fifty six percent of the farmer cooperators in Iloilo rated IWM effectiveness as very good while the remaining 44% rated it as good. In Nueva Ecija, 80% of the farmers rated it good while 20% rated it very good. Farmers also said that they have reduced their herbicide application from 2 to 3 per season to just one per season.
Farmers had shared their knowledge on IWM with other farmers. Forty five percent of all neighbouring farmers were aware of the IWM technology. Of the IWM components, the use of the Weed Control Action Indicator (WCAI) and use of post-emergence herbicides after WCAI assessment were the least familiar to the farmers. Factors identified by farmers that limit adoption included relative advantage, difficulty in understanding and applying the complex new technology, and risk. The neighbouring farmers said that for them to adopt IWM, they need training, to see a successful IWM farmer in the community, and to be convinced of the clear benefits of IWM.
Objective 2. To test, evaluate and adapt a promising (low herbicide) direct seeded rice production method in farmer's fields in the Philippines.
Participatory on-farm trials were established in eight sites: Rizal (2) and Aliaga (3) in Nueva Ecija, and Barotac Nuevo (1) and Dingle (2) in Iloilo. The trials have tested an integrated weed management (IWM) strategy consisting of a combination of good land preparation, intermittent water management, and single herbicide application of a pre- or early post-emergence herbicide. The WCAI was used to help farmers decide on subsequent weed management strategy at 15, 30 and 45 DAS, if need be. During the dry season, an 8 week training using a participatory approach and consisting of half day meetings and field visits was conducted in newly added sites to re-inforce concepts about integrated weed management as well as integrated crop management. Results of the field trials from the new sites were similar to the results obtained in the previous sites, and indicated better weed control, increased yields, and higher profits with the use of integrated weed management as compared to current farmers' practice. A row seedling method was also tested as suggested by farmers and extension workers side-by-side with farmers' practice of hand broadcasting the seeds. Field days were conducted in different sites to demonstrate the importance and effects of integrated weed management. The on-farm trials will be on-going in further seasons and be adapted to local situations in collaboration with farmers and extension workers.
Objective 3. To assess the status of herbicide resistance in rice weeds in the Philippines.
Progress was made on the screening for herbicide resistance to pretilachlor in barnyard grass (Echinochloa spp.). Seven populations of barnyard grass previously identified as butachlor+propanil resistant were also found to be resistant to pretilachlor. Six populations exhibited resistance and one was rated as developing resistance. Response dose assay showed that only two populations did not survive the 4 l/ha dose which is four times the recommended application rate for pretilachlor.
The F2 generation of the surviving plants from the previous resistance screening test for butachlor + propanil were also tested for resistance heritability. The F1 generation of the seven populations were highly resistant with 50 to 70% survival rate. In the F2 resistance heritability screening test, the survivors ranged from 18 to 78%. The 78% survival rate was observed in one population from Nueva Ecija. One population from Iloilo had greater than 50% survival rate.
A survey was conducted in the direct seeded areas of Nueva Ecija and Iloilo to determine the extent of infestation of weedy rice and to collect samples of weedy rice biotypes present in these areas. Laboratory and screenhouse experiments were conducted to determine the morphological and agronomical characteristics of these weedy rice biotypes. Five biotypes were found to be associated with cultivated rice in 32 municipalities of Nueva Ecija, and eight biotypes were found in five municipalities of Iloilo.
Objective 4. To develop an economic framework for policy analysis of herbicide resistance and weed management issues in the Philippines and Australia.
The survey of growers in the Philippines highlighted the real and perceived likelihood of weed mobility across and between properties. Together with the increasing level of costly forms of resistance in Australian grain growing, this has made research into the economics of herbicide resistance management in the presence of weed (and resistance) mobility a priority. Results from economic analyses so far have begun to demonstrate: the reduced incentive for investment in resistance prevention when gaining resistance from a neighbour is likely; the importance of determining actual resistance risks; and the economic benefits of preventing mobility.

A total of approximately 23 sites with a range of productivities were initially screened (13 in Indonesia and 10 in Australia) for their suitability for experimental establishment. Surface soil analyses were conducted on the 13 Indonesian sites, and they showed a weak relationship between measured productivity and soil phosphorus characteristics, but there were few other correlative factors. Investigations are continuing into the causes of site to site variation.

Eight experiments are being established in Indonesia (2 core sites and 6 satellite sites), and 4 in Australia. Sites were selected to cover a range in contrasting water and nutrient availability to explore the impacts that these factors have on productivity and response. The core sites in Indonesia compare a range of genetic material (best genetics, intermediate, unimproved, and 'common' which is material that is sourced from Oriomo province of Papua New Guinea, similar to that which is deployed in Australian plantings) at 2 levels of phosphorus supply (zero and 100 kg P/ha). In both countries, performance of the best available genetic material is assessed in a range of phosphorus supply treatments (which also include basal nutrients), and in a high P treatment without basal nutrients. The 6 satellite sites in Indonesia each have 4 rates of P application, replicated 3 times. These sites were planted in both countries in February-April, 2007. Treatment installation and maintenance is ongoing, but initial establishment has been successfully completed.

In addition to the field activities, a review of available physiological information on Acacia mangium has been completed, and the numerous apparent gaps are being filled through targeted field campaigns. An end-of-wet-season campaign has been completed on Melville Island (April 16-27, 2007), and plans are in place to follow up with an end-of-dry-season campaign in September 2007. Amongst other things, the physiological responses of A. mangium and A. crassicarpa to light, CO2, temperature and P supply have been quantified. Acacia crassicarpa was included as a comparison species because of field observations that it tends to grow slower during the wet season, but continues growing for longer into the dry season compared to A. mangium. Mr Daryono Prehaten (who will soon take up a John Allwright fellowship within this project) will follow up on some of the more promising research opportunities in relation to physiological responses to environment and genotype.

In both countries, only limited information exists on soils, and outcomes from this project will contribute knowledge on soil chemistry in the focus areas of both countries. A significant amount of 'synthetic' (i.e. interpolated surface) climatic information is available for both countries (e.g. SILO in Australia and University of Norwich Climate Research Unit data in Indonesia), but this information has been found to be inaccurate on Melville Island, and it is probably only useful in both countries for indicative climate and historical patterns. Investigations are continuing into more detailed soils and climatic information for the 2 target areas. A second John Allwright fellow, Mr Gunawan Wibisono, will be starting in July 2007, and he will be exploring the relationships between soil and nutrient supply in A. mangium plantations.

On the socio-economic sub-project, a survey of small farmers has been conducted by Dr Fachrurozzie Sjarkowi and colleagues to explore the limiting factors to adoption of A. mangium plantations. Two scientific papers from these studies have been prepared in Bahasa Indonesia, and are currently being translated into English.

In summary, the project is generally proceeding according to plan, and is on track to deliver the planned outcomes.

This year we made significant progress on several fronts. We established the remaining field sites, developed an understanding of key physiological responses and incorporated these into a draft parameter set for CABALATM, improved our understanding of the socio-economic basis for decision making by small farmers, hosted training visits by four Indonesian scientists to Australia, including commencement of 2 postgraduate candidates. We also developed a simple methodology for site classification to assist with predicting potential productivity based on soil characteristics.

This year we established 6 new field experiments in each of Sumatra and Australia bringing the total number of sites to 12 in each location and 24 in total. Initial productivity measurements at the sites established in 2007 showed significant growth responses to application of P at all satellite sites. At all sites there was a growth response to at least 10 kg P/ha, and some sites responded further to 50 and 150 kg P/ha. The shape of the response curves indicate that higher rates may yield even higher productivities. Application of basal fertilisers (micronutrients and cations) did not increase early growth in Sumatra, but a response was observed at most sites in Australia. The Australian sites also responded to application of phosphorus at rates up to 100 kg P/ha. Early results from the core experiment have shown that responses to phosphorous are genotype specific , with the best genetic material more responsive to higher rate of phosphorus than the unimproved and moderately improved material. These results will be important in building decision support tools, and for validating the upper productivity envelope for model predictions.

We have been exploring simple measures of potential productivity to allow growers to objectively characterise their sites to assist in making decisions about suitability and profitability of acacias. In this regard, Mr Makruf Nurudin completed a UNESCO international research course in August 2007, for which he studied soil physical and chemical characteristics in relation to productivity across the 12 sites which were part of the initial screening of prospective experimental sites. His report, entitled "Application of soil colour to assess productivity of Acacia mangium plantation in Indonesia," demonstrated that low productivity sites were characterised by soil profiles with shallow plinthite layers, indicating tendency for waterlogging, and conversely, that soils with deep haematite were generally better drained and were more productive. These minerals can potentially be identified via soil colour, thus allowing for the development of a simple tool to allow farmers to characterise site productive potential.

Physiological characterisation of A. mangium continued, with an end-of-dry season campaign completed in September 2007 on Melville Island, and 2 shorter measurement campaigns in Sumatra studying photosynthesis rates, stomatal response, and water potential under different phosphorus treatments. Based on the results of these studies and a literature review, we developed a draft CABALA parameter set for A. mangium. This parameter set will be tested against A. mangium growth data over the next 12 months.

Socio-economic studies have continued, with a national paper being published arising from the first survey of small holder farmers and the factors that are important in their decision making about establishment of Acacia mangium or alternative land use. Activities this year have included an analysis of the economics of previous Acacia rotations, and comparison with alternative land uses, the results of which are currently being written up.

Another key progress point during the year was commencement of 2 new John Allwright fellows, both of whom started in July 2007 at the University of Western Australia. Mr Gunawan Wibisono is studying for his PhD, and Mr Daryono Prehaten has enrolled in a Masters degree. Both of these student projects are tightly aligned to the overall ACIAR project, with Wibisono studying nitrogen cycling in A. mangium plantations, and Prehaten is exploring the impact of genotype and nutrition on photosynthesis, water relations and physiological response to drought. Both of these studies are contributing to the overall understanding and capacity to model A. mangium.

In summary, the project is proceeding according to plan, and is additionally achieving a deeper understanding of the system than originally envisaged through the activities of the 2 John Allwright fellows.

We have completed establishment of the field program, with 22 field sites across Indonesia and Australia. The 2 core experiments in Sumatra are exploring the interactions between genetically improved material and management, and the results thus far have supported the hypothesis that productivity gains will require a combination of both improved management and improved genetics. The combined management+improved genetics gave 177% increase in productivity in the first year over baseline productivity (no P fertilizer and unimproved genetics), compared to P fertilizer with unimproved material (65%), or use of improved material with no phosphorus fertilizer (32%). At the 2-year old sites the magnitude of the response to P fertilizer has declined, as the trees have a greater capacity to extract soil P at low availability. This has led to a hypothesis that there may be some degree of interchangeability between P fertilization and weed control, as the P fertilized treatments would be much better at suppressing weeds early in the rotation. This hypothesis is being tested experimentally in a new experiment being established this year, and may provide a way for farmers to use less capital but increase their labour input for a similar economic outcome.
The characterisation of site edaphic properties has been continuing at the University of Gadjah Mada. The original 12 sites are in the process of being characterised with a range of physical and chemical assessments, and an additional 12 sites have been sampled and will be used as validation sites for diagnostics that are developed. Diagnostics of phosphorus response are being explored, and it is anticipated that this work will be completed over the next few months.
The modelling aspects of the project have been ramping up this year, now that the physiological and field data has been collected/collated. The initial screening sites in Indonesia have been included in the model validation, as they represent a range of contrasting productivity. These soils were well characterised by Mr Makruf Nurudin during our initial screening exercise. Productivity data from a selection of older experiments on Melville Island have also been utilised. The soil characteristics of plinthite content and soil hardness in Indonesia have proven especially valuable as inputs to determine the rooting depth, but these variables are not as well characterised at the Australian sites. The initial validation showed that the new A. mangium version of CABALA was giving reasonable predictions of productivity at most sites. This will be refined with further analysis of the outlying sites. The draft decision support system and lookup tables will be derived once CABALA has been fully validated.
A number of formal and informal training activities are underway, including two John Allwright fellows studying at the University of Western Australia. Mr Gunawan Wibisono is studying for his PhD on quantifying nitrogen fixation in Acacia mangium plantations, and Mr Daryono Prehaten is studying for his Masters degree through a combination of coursework and research projects around the physiological responses of Acacia mangium to its environment. We have also had 3 visits of Australian staff to Indonesia, and Eko Hardiyanto visited Australia during the reporting period. These reciprocal visits have an informal training component. A field day in May 2009 will inform company staff and extension managers of our project outcomes.
The socio-economic team, led by Prof. Sjarkowi, have been following the outcomes of the first harvest of acacias under the MHP outgrower (MHR) scheme. The volume of wood harvested was between 105 and 150 m3/ha, which is somewhat below expectation. The technologies and outputs from this project are required to provide more realistic expectations based on site variables, and to provide management options for farmers to maximise their yield on any given site.
We have held a number of communications activities during the year, including the mid-term project review in August 2008, an inter-project linkages workshop in June 2008 with FST2003/048 ("Management of fungal root rot in plantation acacias in Indonesia"), and a field day in May 2009. Each of these events have been focused on delivering information on current status of activities and findings not only within the project team, but also to senior company managers and staff, who are keen to learn how our results can improve their plantation management, and have accompanied us on associated field trips and attended presentations.
In summary, the project is progressing according to plan, and we are on target to deliver as anticipated in May 2010.