Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

This program builds on research and extension activities started in an AusAID ACNRS project Management of potato late blight in PNG (2004). The objectives of the current project are to introduce, multiply, evaluate and deploy late blight resistant clonal material into PNG and to develop safe, cost effective integrated late blight management strategies for existing and new potato cultivars and ultimately to rehabilitate potato production for smallholders.

Thirty-six International Potato Centre (CIP) potato clones, introduced into PNG in 2003, were resurrected from tissue culture in Kerevat and propagated to seed tubers in National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) facilities in Aiyura and Tambul. In field trials without fungicide sprays, 12 of these clones survived late blight disease several weeks longer than more susceptible clones, which died before reaching maturity. Four of 12 cultivars from Australia that were screened in 3 field trials proved to be significantly less susceptible than the standard Sequoia and will be further evaluated in under a fungicide spray regime.

Ten 'best bet' late blight resistant CIP potato clones were propagated as minitubers by Lima, Peru and will be shipped to PNG in December/January to boost seed supplies for trials. Tissues culture plantlets of the 10 clones will be also be sent to PNG from Peru to refresh current stocks, as well as to Australia as back-up tissue culture stocks.

Lack of seed potatoes is a critical factor preventing farmers from participating in potato production. A potato production specialist, Corina Horstra from Department of Primary Industries Victoria, reviewed propagation and multiplication capability in PNG during a visit to the tissue culture and seed tuber production facilities at Aiyura and Tambul, respectively, in June 2005. It was concluded that both NARI (tissue culture production) and Fresh Produce Development Agency (seed potato production) have the technical capability to produce high quality seed potatoes for PNG. A number of technical problems at the tissue culture facility at Aiyura, which were identified as hampering the consistent supply of tissue culture plantlets to stock the FPDA screen houses in Tambul, are being rectified. FPDA has built additional screen houses at Tambul to increase their minituber production capability for the seed program.

Availability of fungicides in PNG is limited to copper and chlorothalonil based products. Preliminary fungicide evaluation trials had demonstrated that weekly sprays with copper based products provided sufficient control of late blight to allow the susceptible cultivar Sequoia to be grown to maturity. In further trials, weekly sprays of chlorothalonil proved to be superior to copper sprays in protecting plants from late blight. However, chlorothalonil is significantly more expensive than copper and the challenge is to determine whether the integration of the two fungicides can provide sufficient protection of Sequoia crop but at a reduced cost.

FPDA, with input from NARI, have been successful in laying the foundation for rebuilding PNG potato industry through the delivery of supplies of quality seed and through village extension worker training activities which have involved 2500 smallholders. However, at present potato production in PNG is generally limited to a relatively small number of 'commercial' growers who have access to land, backpack sprayers, chemicals, seed potatoes and labour and based on the highly susceptible cultivar Sequoia.

There is renewed confidence in potato production in PNG following the epidemic of potato late blight that wiped out potato production in 2003. Quantities of locally grown potatoes of the favoured variety Sequoia can be found in the market places of major centres in PNG. For the moment it seems that potatoes are grown mostly by a small number of 'commercial' farmers who can afford the seed, chemicals and labour. They have learnt from the results of field trials conducted through this project, and from their own experience, how to manage late blight in the highly susceptible Sequoia. In order to keep the plants alive until maturity, the crop must be sprayed every 3 to 5 days with fungicides. The average crop receives 12 to 20 fungicide sprays throughout its lifetime, an intensive regime that may be too much for 'subsistence' farmers who once relied on potatoes as a valuable cash crop. This situation will not change unless late blight resistant varieties are made available.

One of the objectives of the project is to establish late blight resistant cultivars in PNG. It should be possible to grow resistant cultivars with significantly less chemical treatments than the current variety. Several potato varieties developed by the International Potato Centre in Peru (CIP) were tested in the field by National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) scientists and proved to be very resistant to potato late blight. In these trials, a number of varieties showed no sign of disease throughout the life of the crop, whereas the susceptible Sequoia died within weeks of planting. A selection of these varieties is now being multiplied in tissue culture by NARI and will be grown on as seed potatoes by the Fresh Produce Development Agency for distribution to selected growers for further testing. In the meantime, several additional CIP varieties will be screened for disease resistance so that further selections can be made. This will ensure the availability of several varieties in the market place over the next few years.

Potatoes cannot be grown in PNG without fungicide treatments. An objective of the project is to identify cost effective and safe chemical treatments for control late blight. Fungicide products containing copper or chlorothalonil are being currently by farmers. In recent trials, spray treatments with chlorothalonil were superior to treatments with copper and significantly delayed the onset of late blight in the crop. In trials that tested how often a crop needed to treated for effective disease control, chlorothalonil treatments applied no less than every 7 days resulted in the best yields. In contrast, crops sprayed with copper every 7 days did not reach maturity.

Reliance on one fungicide for potato late blight control is not sustainable. The systemic fungicide potassium phosphonate, which has shown promise in controlling late blight in a number of countries around the world. It is available in PNG (Agri Phos 600) and has registration for potato late blight control. This fungicide is relatively cost effective and safe to use. It will be trialled in the field and integrated with the protectant fungicide chlorothalonil.

An important project objective is the consistent and assured supply of seed potatoes of current and new varieties into the market place. The tissue culture laboratory at Aiyura is critical to this process. Several changes to operational protocols over the past year resulted in significant improvements in the quality and throughput of potato plantlets from this laboratory. These plantlets are used by FPDA to produce minituber and the subsequent field grown generations of Certified Seed Potatoes in PNG.

At a meeting late in 2006, the project team selected four CIP clones that had looked promising in field trials for fast track multiplication for farmer trials. The clones were selected on the basis of their resistance to potato late blight and favourable agronomic, cooking and flavour traits. Twelve hundred tissue culture plantlets of each clone were multiplied at the tissue culture facility in Aiyura (Coffee Industry Council) and planted in screenhouses at Tambul in early June to be grown-on to produce minitubers. This material will be multiplied in the field to Generation 2 and distributed to selected commercial and smallholder farmers for evaluation by the end of 2008. In the meantime, the performance of other CIP clones is being evaluated in a series of field trials at Tambul and Mt Hagen. Although many of these clones are resistant or moderately resistant to potato late blight, some have proved to be highly susceptible to the intractable disease bacterial wilt, which is more difficult to manage than blight.

The effectiveness of the systemic fungicide potassium phosphonate in controlling potato late blight was evaluated in field trials at two different locations. Different rates and intervals of application of the fungicides were compared with an untreated control and a standard chlorothalonil treatment (applied every 7 days). The phosphonate treatments provided some measure of protection against potato late blight on the susceptible variety Sequoia but were not as effective as the standard chlorothalonil treatment. Experience in South America indicates that this fungicide is likely to be more effective when used on potato cultivars that have some resistance to potato late blight. Further trials will test whether there are any benefits in integrating the phosphonate and chlorothalonil treatments, since the optimum spray interval for phosphonate was 14 days compared with 7 days for the standard treatment.

There is currently a serious shortage of seed potatoes in PNG due to a shortage of supply of tissue culture plantlets of the cultivar Sequoia over the past few years. Production of plantlets has been scaled in the past 12 months and the tissue culture laboratory has been producing nearly 6000 plantlets per month. However, it will take two years to produce stocks of Certified Seed (generation 4) from each batch of plantlets.

Whilst this project is focused on potato late blight, a number of other diseases are posing significant challenges for potato seed and ware production. These include the potato leaf-roll virus, Rhizoctonia stem canker, bacterial wilt and target spot (Alternaria solani), which appear to have become more prevalent in commercial scale production of potatoes.

Late blight disease prevents smallholder farmers in Papua New Guinea (PNG) from growing the popular but highly susceptible potato variety Sequoia, which needs weekly fungicide sprays to be productive. The aim of the project is to introduce late blight resistant varieties, backed up with integrated disease management strategies, and the capacity to produce consistent quantities of quality seed potatoes of the new varieties for smallholder farmers.
The first field generation of four late blight resistant clones, bred by the International Potato Centre (CIP) and selected for farmer evaluation trials, has been harvested and will be grown on for a second generation before distribution. Selection of these clones was based on late blight resistance and favourable agronomic, cooking and flavour traits in field trials. A smaller quantity of seed of these clones is currently being multiplied for preliminary release to farmers for evaluation. Of the 59 CIP clones available, 29 have been screened so far and a further 21 as yet untested clones will undergo preliminary screening in field trials over the next 6 months. Further selections for farmer evaluation will be made when analysis of this year's trial data is completed.
Trials to date have demonstrated the effectiveness of the contact fungicide chlorothalonil in controlling late blight in Sequoia potato crops. However, additional fungicides, which have systemic and curative properties, are needed to improve late blight control, particularly in the young, rapidly growing crop. Protecting the young crop for as long as possible is critical in minimising disease spread and yield loss. Advice on the most appropriate chemicals for PNG is being sought from European experts and chemical companies.
Seed potatoes of the variety Sequoia are currently in short supply in PNG because of limited supplies of tissue culture plants in the past. The output of plantlets has increased significantly over the past 12 months resulting in a steady supply of tubers being multiplied at Tambul. As a result, new supplies of commercial seed stocks will steadily increase from June this year.
Abstracts and posters of the results of fungicide and CIP clone evaluation trials in PNG were presented at the Third International Late Blight Conference in Beijing in April 2008. Dolf de Boer and Andr Drenth attended the conference, along with 152 other delegates from 34 countries. The CIP clone trial data from PNG will prove to be very relevant to potato production in tropical highland environments in other countries, such as Indonesia and East Timor. The pre conference workshop provided valuable information on standardised international procedures for research into late blight including fungicide and variety evaluation. A CIP training manual for Training of Trainers in the management of late blight presented at the workshop and can be adapted for training Village Extension Workers in PNG. Access to world experts on late blight management was invaluable in helping to focus project activities in PNG.
The Fresh Produce Development Agency has recently employed a full-time extension officer who will facilitate a farmer survey to identify constraints to growing potatoes, conduct farmer field school activities on late blight management using the CIP training modules, and assist with farmer evaluation trials of the selected CIP clones.

The devastating late blight disease caused by Phytophthora infestans has prevented smallholder farmers in Papua New Guinea from growing the popular potato variety Sequoia. Seed potatoes, fertiliser and chemicals are expensive and weekly fungicide sprays are now needed to make this variety productive.
A major milestone for the project was achieved with the release of late blight resistant varieties for farmer trials. In December 2008, small quantities of seed potatoes of four late blight resistant clones were given to nine potato farmers in the Eastern and Western Highlands Provinces for evaluation alongside Sequoia. The farmers were Village Extension Workers and seed potato growers for the Fresh Produce Development Agency (FPDA).
The clones are part of a collection that was bred by the International Potato Centre (CIP) for tropical highland environments. The four clones selected had a high level of resistance to late blight and favourable agronomic, cooking and flavour traits in trials conducted by the National Agriculture Research Institute (NARI).
Unsprayed Sequoia plants were destroyed by late blight within nine weeks of planting in the farmers fields. A low level of late blight developed in two of the four clones as the crops began to mature. The yields of the unsprayed CIP clones were comparable to the yields of the sprayed Sequoia. However, all CIP clones were affected by low levels of early blight disease (Alternaria solani) after crop flowering. The CIP clones, in general, are susceptible to this disease, particularly under conditions of poor nutrition.
The growers rated the four clones favourably against the Sequoia on the basis of growth, tuber characteristics, cooking (frying and boiling) and taste. Field days were held at two sites at the crop flowering stage and at harvest time. Additional field days were held in the Eastern and Western Highlands Provinces where the clones were on display in field plots. More seed lots of the four clones will be released to farmers for evaluation in the coming months.
An additional four clones with good disease resistance and agronomic traits are currently being multiplied for farmer trials. In the meantime, clones from later CIP breeding populations, which have multiple, rather than single gene resistance to late blight, are being screened for resistance.
Further testing of potato late blight disease samples by the Scottish Crop Research Institute (SCRI) has confirmed that the PNG population of Phytophthora infestans is made up of only one strain, designated 2_A1. So far, a total of 130 isolates have been tested for strain type in samples taken throughout the Highland Provinces.
A restructure of work processes in the tissue culture laboratory at Aiyura resulted in significant improvements in the numbers and quality of Sequoia plantlets being delivered to the FPDA for further multiplication. Monthly targets of 12,000 plantlets have recently been achieved. However, the flow-on supply of certified seed potato stocks to farmers was slowed by crop health problems (disease and/or nutritional disorders). DNA from potato leaf samples will be sent to Australia for virus testing to help seed potato certification officers distinguish symptoms of virus infection from nutritional disorders.
The adoption of new potato cultivars by farmers depends on the availability of a consistent supply of quality seed potatoes. Eight staff from FPDA, six of whom were sponsored by the Crawford Foundation, attended the Victorian Certified Seed Potato Authority Seed Potato Certification Officers Biennial Workshop in Victoria, Australia in December 2008. The skills and knowledge acquired at the workshop will help delegate's improve their competencies in seed potato certification and improve seed potato quality in PNG.

The devastating late blight disease caused by Phytophthora infestans, which first occurred in Papua New Guinea in 2003, has made it difficult for all but the farmers who can afford seed potatoes, fertiliser, fungicides and labour to grow the popular but highly susceptible variety Sequoia.
The main strategy of this project has been to find late blight resistant varieties to replace Sequoia. Field evaluation of all of 55 potato clones imported from Peru is now complete. These clones are part of a collection that was breed by the International Potato Centre (CIP) for short day, tropical highland environments. Twelve clones, which consistently exhibited resistance to late blight and favourable agronomic, flavour and cooking traits in a series of field trials conducted by the National Agriculture Research Institute (NARI), have been selected for evaluation in farmer and market chain participatory trials.
A second series of farmer trials of four CIP clones first tested in December 2008, were established in December 09 in eight different locations representing four micro environments across four highlands provinces. The clones were planted in plots alongside the Sequoia variety, which were either sprayed with fungicide or not treated at all. Unfortunately, the two trials in one province were terminated due to tribal fights and logistical problems. The NARI and Fresh Produce Develop Agency (FPDA) team collected data on disease severity, yield and cost of production. Two of the clones (unsprayed) produced marketable yields comparable to that of the sprayed Sequoia, averaging 12 to 26 tonnes per hectare. The yields of unsprayed Sequoia averaged less than 5 tonnes per hectare because of severe late blight infection.
One or two field days were held at each site with attendances of between 25 to 100 farmers being recorded. Based on farmer and visitor preferences and overall performance in trials, further testing of two of the four clones will cease. Seed potato stocks for farmer trials of the remaining 10 clones are at various stages of multiplication. Potatoes will also be distributed to chicken and chip shops for an assessment of retailer and consumer responses. Most clones are much better suited to frying than Sequoia.
The adoption of new potato cultivars by farmers depends on the availability of a consistent supply of quality seed potatoes. The Aiyura tissue culture lab output averages 12,000 plantlets per month (mostly Sequoia at this stage), which fills 6 of 24 the FPDA screenhouses at Tambul each month for minituber production. FPDA now faces the inevitable challenge of finding enough suitable land and qualified and competent seed growers for multiplication of the field generations.
Late blight has now been found on tomato plants in Eastern Highlands Province of PNG. The disease symptoms were severe enough to defoliate the plants and cause serious fruit rots. Farmers are faced with prospect of regular applications of fungicides to prevent foliage and fruit blight. Tomatoes are the second most important host of the Phytophthora infestans pathogen world wide next to potatoes. Samples of diseased plants have been sent to the Scottish Crop Research Institute for identification of the pathogen strain.
DNA extracts taken from seed potato plants in PNG, which were suspected of being affected by the potato leaf roll virus, have returned positive in tests conducted in Australia. A NARI scientist based at Aiyura, and currently engaged in a virus testing of sweet potatoes, recently undertook intensive training in Australia (sponsored by the Crawford Fund) to develop competency in the virus detection so that potato and sweet potato viruses can be tested in PNG and thereby providing an important service for certified seed potato program.

The project aims to develop potato and Brassica production and post harvest systems in the provinces of West and Central Java. The temperate climate of the highlands enables predominantly small scale farmers to grow potatoes and brassicas as cash crops. Demand for potatoes from nearby countries, the domestic ware market and processors in Indonesia is increasing reflecting growing per capita incomes, population growth and westernisation of tastes. In response to this opportunity the Government of Indonesia has been focusing on improving the yield and quality of potatoes and Brassicas, which are grown in rotation. This project builds on the previous work of the project partners and other institutions from Indonesia and Australia.
The project contract was signed in May 2006 however problems with obtaining sign off from Indonesian partners delayed the project commencement. In August 2006 the Australian project partners met in Bunbury, Western Australia for a day to discuss project management and technical issues. There have been 3 subsequent video conferences linking all Australian partners.
The project commenced with an inception workshop and farm visits from 10 - 15 September 2006 hosted by IVEGRI in Lembang West Java. The workshop provided the first opportunity for all partners to meet. Presentations were provided by Australian and Indonesian partners on previous projects and the components of the project and organisational responsibilities were defined. The baseline survey aim, design, data for collection and statistical analysis requirements was discussed and agreed upon. The training component of the project was also covered focusing on the development of the Train the Trainers and Farmer Field School work plans.
The baseline survey commenced with training provided for Indonesian counterparts by Peter Dawson and Fiona Goss (Youth Ambassador from DAFWA) in November 2006 at IVEGRI and provincial Dinas Pertanian offices in Central and West Java. The training focused on how to collect, store and transport soil and leaf petiole samples. The baseline survey commenced in West Java in December 2006 but was delayed until February 2007 in Central Java due to delayed planting and/or revised rotation of the wet season crops. Visits have been made by Dr Ian McPharlin (Agronomist), Dr Roger Jones (Virologist), Dr. Michael Furlong and Dr. Peter Ridland (both entomologists) and Dr. Dolf De Boer (Plant pathologist) to provide training to survey enumerators on specific components of the baseline survey.
At the Inception Workshop the Indonesian counterparts confirmed the presence of Potato and Golden Cyst Nematode (PCN) in Indonesia. PCN was first observed in Indonesia in 2003 and was probably imported with seed from Europe. Whilst there are no formal results yet from the project's baseline survey the pest and disease management experts on the team were also struck by the potential for sustainability problems with the production system. The continuous cropping of potatoes (up to 3 crops per annum) at high elevations in Central Java poses a threat to the system. IVEGRI is working with a number of Universities to investigate the scale of the problem in Indonesia and the Indonesian government have provided of large quantities of nematicide. The opportunity exists for the project to provide assistance determining the extent of the infestation through soil surveys and formulating systems to minimise the spread of the pest through on-farm hygiene and the development of appropriate seed distribution policies, quarantine, rotations and resistant varieties.
The only data received from the survey so far is agronomic data from West Java that is currently being analysed in Australia.
In January 2007 Elske van de Fliert visited the project partners to co-ordinate the development of workplans for the implementation of province-level Training of Trainers events and Farmer Field Schools. The commencement of the initial TOT event has been delayed from April to May 2007 awaiting the data from the baseline survey.
Indonesian candidates for short term entomology and plant pathology training in Australia have been identified at IVEGRI and Dinas Pertanian West and Central Java and training programs are under development.
A census designed for WA export seed potato growers to assess the quality of export seed through the supply chain commenced in April 2007. Measurements of potato seed tuber handling were taken using an instrumented sphere with temperature and humidity data loggers.
CIP have not taken part in the project to date as the role of CIP in Indonesia is currently under review and the Asian regional office may be moved to China.

The project aims to develop potato, Brassica and allium (shallot) production and post harvest systems in the provinces of West Java, Central Java, South Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara Barat. The temperate highland climate in these provinces enables predominantly small scale growers to grow potatoes, brassicas and alliums as cash crops. Domestic demand for ware and processing potatoes and regional demand primarily for processing potatoes is seeing potatoes becoming an increasingly important crop throughout Indonesia. Accordingly the Indonesian government and donors such as ACIAR are funding research, development and extension work to support the development of potatoes and rotational crops.

The project document was signed in May 2006 and the project initiation workshop was held in September 2006. Delays to the commencing the baseline survey due to late rains have led to the project running approx. 6- 8 months behind schedule.

A project variation was signed in February 2008 to expand the project to include the provinces of South Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB). These provinces are small producers of vegetables in comparison to West and Central Java however there are opportunities to increase potato/Brassica/allium production significantly. PT Indofood Fritolay are looking to expand potato production in Lombok and Lombok, if it proven to be free of Potato Cyst Nematode (PCN), has the potential to supply high quality seed to the rest of Indonesia.

Work on the variation commenced in May 2008 when Peter Dawson (DAFWA) and John Marshall (Independent Consultant) visited NTB, South Sulawesi and Central Java to commence the PCN survey. Training was supplied to counterparts and farmers in PCN survey techniques and applied farm biosecurity methods.

The original project design had Training of Trainer (ToT) activities being undertaken over a full production season however the duration was revised down to 12 days, reflecting the available budget. ToT activities, training groups of 20, were undertaken from 29 August - 9 September in West Java and 5 - 16 November 2007 in Central Java. The curriculum taught by trainers is based on the Indonesian version of the CIP/FAO manuals for potato IPM. The material taught to farmers is being improved by team members from Australia and Indonesia drawing on previous research experience and on the results of the baseline survey for potato crop 1 which were available in time to be incorporated into the curriculum. A complete curriculum will only be developed once the results of the baseline survey and follow on trials are available.

Integrated crop management Farmer Field School (FFS) were established in 10 communities in West Java and 10 communities in Central Java. The FFS commenced in November 2007 in West Java and March 2008 in Central Java.

In November 2007 Rini Murtiningsih, Entomologist with IVEGRI commenced a 1 month training period with the University of Queensland. The training focused on increasing her entomological skills and planning entomological activities for the rest of the project

The crop management and economic baseline survey for the first potato crop was completed and analysed. The first potato crop was grown over the 2006/07 wet season from November 2006 to March 2007. Soil and plant nutrient data support the conclusion that micro element toxicity due to soil acidification is contributing to significant yield loss in both provinces.

The economics baseline survey examined the relationship between variables such as yields, scale, pesticide and fertiliser use and gross margin returns for growers. Profitability is sensitive to the cost and performance of seed, fertiliser and pesticides which make up 75% of costs, there is a negative relationship between pesticide expenditure and gross margin, additional expenditure on fertilisers leads to increased yields. There is a need to conduct further work into the financial benefits of additional fertiliser expenditure. There was no significant correlation between seed expenditure and seed source and gross margin. Further work is required in this area.

The second baseline survey was carried out on the cabbage crop grown in 2007 after the harvest of the potatoes in March/April. The collection of data on growing practices and conditions by enumerators and results from laboratory samples of soils and plant material was complete in most cases. Yield was seen to be correlated to soil pH and planting density.

The baseline survey work was supported by Andrew Taylor, Plant Pathologist with DAFWA. Andrew spent 5 months working with IVEGRI in Lembang funded by the AusAID Youth Ambassador Program.

Supply chain systems work in Western Australia has focused on optimising harvesting and post harvest systems. An electronic tuber has been purchased and is being run through farmers' harvesters and grading lines to measure physical impact on tubers.

The project aims to develop potato, brassica and allium (shallot) production and post harvest systems in the provinces of West Java, Central Java, South Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara Barat. The temperate highland climate in these provinces enables predominantly small scale growers to grow potatoes, brassicas and alliums as cash crops. Domestic demand for ware and processing potatoes and regional demand primarily for processing potatoes is seeing potatoes becoming an increasingly important crop throughout Indonesia. Accordingly the Indonesian government and donors such as ACIAR are funding research, development and extension work to support the development of potatoes and rotational crops.

The project document was signed in May 2006 and the project initiation workshop was held in September 2006. A project variation was signed in February 2008 to expand the project to include the provinces of South Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB). These provinces are small producers of vegetables in comparison to West and Central Java however there are opportunities to increase potato/Brassica/allium production significantly. PT Indofood are looking to expand potato production in Lombok and Lombok, if it proven to be free of potato cyst nematode (PCN), has the potential to supply high quality seed to the rest of Indonesia.

The project is a technology rollout project. Constraints to production in potatoes and cabbage were determined through baseline surveys. Best bet management recommendations are then validated through learning by doing plots run through the Farmer Field School system. To ensure that best bet management recommendations are validated in a rigorous manner the project is modifying the FFS methodology. We aim was to instigate demonstration plots that allowed the impact of single management changes to be measured by farmers. Previously the FFS have compared an ICM plot versus a conventional plot. This resulted in a host of management changes between the plots and so it was difficult to identify the cause of improvements in profits between the treatments.

Individual learning-by-doing (LBD) demonstration plots for the 2nd cycle of FFS in WJ 2008/09 were devised to test three of the five factors identified by the baseline survey (potato late blight, lime/soil pH, seed quality. Collaboration between groups by pooling results will ensure rigorous comparisons are made. Adoption of this simple experimental methodology will increase the capacity of farmers to assess the value of management changes. This was recognised by farmers at a FFS review meeting where one group stated that the benefit of FFS was "Menciptakan petani yang mahir dan mandiri" (the creation of self-reliant expert farmers).

This system has also been used in the cabbage FFS and Figure shows the growth response of cabbage to lime applications as a result of improved soil pH and subsequent reduced severity of clubroot disease.

A PCN survey of the Sembalun area in NTB was completed and the area was found to be free of potato cyst nematode. This means that NTB could be develop as a safe potato seed provider to Eastern Indonesia.

Experiments have significantly advanced our understanding of the ecology and impact of the major natural enemy groups on diamondback moth populations in the region. The work has demonstrated the significant impact which Diadegma semiclausum can have on pest populations but has also clearly shown that the endemic generalist predatory fauna also contributes significantly to pest mortality. Agricultural practices which conserve these organisms will play an important role in the IPM of Brassica insect pests.

The project aims to improve the efficiency of potato, brassica and allium (shallot) production and post harvest systems in the provinces of West Java, Central Java, South Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara Barat. The temperate highland climate in these provinces enables predominantly small scale growers to grow potatoes, brassicas and alliums as cash crops. Indonesian domestic demand for table and processing potatoes and SE Asian regional demand primarily for processing potatoes is seeing potatoes becoming an increasingly important crop throughout Indonesia. Accordingly the Indonesian government and donors such as ACIAR are funding research, development and extension work to support the development of potatoes and rotational crops.

The eastern Indonesian provinces involved are small producers of vegetables in comparison to West and Central Java however there are opportunities to increase potato/Brassica/allium production significantly. PT Indofood are looking to expand potato production in Lombok and this area could even prove to be a potato cyst nematode (PCN) free high quality seed supplier to the rest of Indonesia.

Constraints to production in potatoes and cabbage were determined through baseline surveys conducted in Bandung and Garut (West Java), Banjarnegara and Wonosobo (Central Java), Sembulun (NTB) and Gowa (South Sulawesi). Best bet management recommendations have been validated through learning by doing plots run through the Farmer Field School (FFS) approach. To ensure that best bet management recommendations are validated in a rigorous manner the project has modified the FFS methodology. The aim was to instigate demonstration plots that allowed the impact of single management changes to be measured by farmers. Previously the FFS have compared an ICM plot versus a conventional plot. This resulted in a wide range of management changes between the plots making it difficult to identify the cause of improvements in profits. We call the new methodology Farmer Initiated Learning (FIL).

This year individual learning-by-doing (LBD) demonstration plots for the 3rd cycle of FIL in West Java in 2009/10 were devised to test two of the five factors (potato late blight, seed quality) identified by the baseline survey. In addition a total of eight LBD plots were undertaken in South Sulawesi and NTB looking at IPM.

This system has also been used in the cabbage FIL and three LBD evaluations that examined the management of Clubroot using freshly applied and resistant varieties were sown on 5 FIL sites in Central Java in January 2010. LBD evaluations in FIL in NTB tested the response of potatoes to different rates of potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) in 2009.

A PCN survey of the Sembalun area in NTB was completed and the area was found to be free of potato cyst nematode. Recent PCN cyst survival experiments funded by the project and conducted by Professor Mulyadi's team at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta have shown that PCN cysts are rapidly killed in inundated highland paddy soils like those found at Sembalun. As a result of this survey and the cyst decline findings, it may be possible to develop the highland paddy field areas of NTB as a safe potato seed provider to Indonesia.

Experiments have significantly advanced the understanding of the ecology and impact of the major natural enemy groups on diamondback moth populations in the region. The work has demonstrated the significant impact which Diadegma semiclausum can have on pest populations but has also clearly shown that the endemic generalist predatory fauna also contributes significantly to pest mortality. Agricultural practices which conserve these organisms will play an important role in the IPM of Brassica insect pests.

Work to improve seed potato production and handling systems in Australia has continued. An investigation into improving yield and quality in the seed in WA was conducted over the summer of 2009/10. Growing conditions and practices including harvest practices were examined to identify limits to yield and quality on 4 Atlantic, 2 Granola and 1 Bliss crop. The agronomy work has supported the continuing post harvest work using an electronic potato, the Smart Spud, which quantifies handling impacts and enables quantitative assessment of seed potato handling in Australia. Similarly a "hot box" test is being used to assess potato seed lot tolerance to break down under hot conditions. These tests should help the industry to maintain a consistently high out-turn of Australian export seed potatoes.

Background:
This project was formally and operationally commissioned in January, 2008 for a 14 month period. The project team is lead by the Department of Primary Industries (DPI) Victoria, and involves collaboration with Haluoleo University (Univ. Halu.), Kendari, Se Sulawesi, and the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (Bangkok, Thailand). The primary objectives of the project are:
1. To facilitate local leadership and support for mariculture industry development through establishment of a functional stakeholder network and strategic implementation framework.
2. To identify opportunities to adopt a more agribusiness, market driven approach to industry development of the smallholder mariculture market sector in SE Sulawesi.
3. In close consultation with the stakeholder network, prepare an industry development strategy.
Key activities to date:
two project visits (June 2007 and January 2008) have been completed to SE Sulawesi collectively by DPI and NACA.
project inception and planning workshop completed by project team and key local stakeholders (Kendari, Jan. "08; workshop program and local media publicity attached to this report as Attachment A).
project work plans developed and commissioned by project team (Jan.-April "08)
mariculture market chain baseline survey (socio-economic/technical/chain dynamics) in Se Sulawesi designed, developed and implemented; incorporating collaboration with Indonesian Centre for Marine & Fisheries Socio-Economic Research (ICM&FS-ER)(May, "08; in progress)
mariculture market chain post-harvest characterisation/logistics case study completed; incorporating both commercial consultancy input and in-house, project team investigations, data collation and analysis (Jan.-May "08)
preliminary mariculture market chain risk assessment, opportunity/needs analysis and strategic industry development conceptualisation completed.

The commencement of the project was unexpectedly delayed due to completion of the agreements between Deakin University/ and the other partners. However, on completion of the formalities in May 2007 the project took of the ground, with an initial filed visit to all the project sites by local and overseas (Sean De Silva, Brett Ingram, Thuy Nguyen) researchers. During these visits extensive consultations were held with village stakeholder groups and the inception workshop that brought together extension officers and relevant DoLF staff from the two provinces was held. Based on the above consultations the species selections and proportions and overall stocking densities to be used were determined through a consensus and past experience and also taking into consideration potential fingerling availability.

All procurements for the project have been done on time and already one overseas training has been accomplished.

The DOLF personnel proceeded to initiate action, particularly with regard to the first farmer CBF trial, and all this was achieved with in six weeks of initial consultation; this being the in all probability the fastest inception of a project such as this. As such the first farmer participatory CBF trial in 12 water bodies was completed in April 2008 and the raw information has been collected. This information will be analysed in due course and will be used to improve upon the second trial that is scheduled to commence in September/ October 2008.

Simultaneously progress is being made with the work associated with the optimisation of the hypophysation techniques (hormonal treatment for artificial propagation) for the two selected indigenous fish species viz. Labeo chrysophekadion and Cirrhinus molitorella as well on the development of a broodstock management plan for these two species. In the latter regard sample collections from private and governments hatcheries, as well as from the wild populations are being done. These samples will be analysed in the Genetics Laboratory, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, and for this purpose a Laotian Researcher from the Namxouang Aquaculture Development Centre has already been selected/ nominated, and the training and the analysis is expected to commence in July/ August 2008. The first experimental trials on improvements to hupophysation techniques were conducted and these data will be utilised for planning the second trial to be conducted during the forthcoming spawning season (Sept/ Oct 08).

All planned activities in this project progressed extremely satisfactorily and it could not have been smoother and more productive. The cooperation extended by all stakeholders and the degree of commitment from all continues to drive the progress; it is also evident that the stakeholders wait with much hope and expectation as means of supplementing their meagre income and accessibility to fish food during the leaner months of the capture fishery.

All planned activities in this project progressed extremely satisfactorily and it could not have been smoother and more productive. The cooperation extended by all stakeholders and the degree of commitment from all continues to drive this progress; it is also evident that the stakeholders wait with much hope and expectation as means of supplementing their meagre income and accessibility to food fish during the leaner months of the capture fishery.

Over the two year period two field trials have been completed, and the relevant data are being inputted into specially designed database (Access) for further analysis (scientific). Most importantly, Culture Based Fisheries (CBF) development in the project sites and the involvement of communities, have triggered communities from the neighbouring villages two other provinces to undertake CBF activities on their own accord. In respect of the latter the project facilitated training of those communities in two instances. For example, in recognising the successes of Sivilay Village, four Village Communities (NanGeun, Pha Thao, BoungPhao and HadSuanae village) within a radius of 15 km have consulted the former and sought advice on CBF operations, and in the course of 2008/09 season commenced operations.

In all water bodies the fishery communities, formed of the farming communities with access to the respective water bodies, gained significantly not only in financial terms but also in the way of community development and well being. The individual communities met at least once or twice a month and made collective decisions with regard to maintaining stocks, harvesting procedures and dates, marketing strategies that included fixing of a minimum saleable price for individual species of fish and most of all the manner in which the profits are to be disbursed.

The project is focused on enhancing evaluation efforts both in Department of Primary Industries, Victoria (DPI) and in Vietnam, in the Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development (MARD). The project has 2 streams of work:

To develop evaluation procedures for agricultural Research and Development in MARD, and
To develop a procedure for evaluating complex concepts, with science capability in 'Our Rural Landscapes' (ORL) as the study case, initially for use in DPI, with later application, where appropriate, to R & D in MARD.

The project has made sound progress against objectives.

In relation to the first stream of work, a number of key activities have been successfully undertaken including:

- Training of MARD evaluation officers in Australia during an eight day orientation and in Vietnam during an intensive training and mentoring program provided by the DPI Evaluation training manager
- Selection of 2 case study research projects in national Science Institutes in Vietnam to trial evaluation approaches and tools. A post-harvest fruit preparation project and a hybrid rice-breeding project have been selected. Needs assessment and project clarification have been completed, theories of action developed and draft evaluation plans prepared by MARD evaluation officers which are currently being reviewed by DPI evaluation personnel.
- Production of draft evaluation guidelines for MARD that has involved identification of MARD needs, based on consultation with senior MARD personnel. The draft guidelines will be reviewed in Australia and confirmed by MARD personnel prior to their formal adoption by MARD in September 2005. MARD is seeking a shift from an outputs focused, monitoring form of evaluation to a system that can assist in identifying impact and outcomes and contribute to policy development and investment decisions.
This phase of the project has been enhanced considerably by the leadership provided by an Australian Youth Ambassador to MARD, a DPI evaluation officer. The Youth Ambassador has provided vital mentoring to the MARD evaluation officers and has been a driving force in developing methodological approaches that are responsive to the evaluation needs of MARD. It is apparent that MARD evaluation officers are rapidly developing skills and confidence in applying appropriate evaluation approaches to the selected case studies.

Pleasing progress has also been made in relation to the second work stream.

An innovative methodology termed concept mapping has been used to define DPI's understanding of the concept of science capability, involving scientists, management and industry stakeholders. Concept mapping is a structured brainstorming process used by groups to reach consensus about a given topic or concept. Concept mapping integrates group process activities (brainstorming, unstructured pile sorting and rating of brainstormed items) with several multi-variate statistical analyses to yield both statistical and graphical "maps" of a conceptual domain. Concept mapping uses specialised computer software to undertake these analyses and has been used in a range of sectors to develop frameworks for evaluation. The domains of science capability generated by DPI concept mapping were compared with literature-derived domains and a simple integrated science capability framework has been developed. The framework is consistent with the structure of the Australia Business Excellence Framework (ABEF) which has been adopted to guide continuous improvement in DPI. The identified domains in the science capability framework are: Science capacity, science quality, science project management, utilisation of science findings, foresighting and generation of new ideas, and reputation.

A series of indicators have been generated for each domain. While much of the data required to measure the specified indicators is currently collected by DPI through existing monitoring, management and reporting systems, validation of existing data is sought through an in-depth, but systematic, qualitative approach. As a result, two complementary data collection schedules have been developed:

A schedule for collection of selected existing data
A schedule for a representative cross section of ORL staff and stakeholders to undertake a self-assessment of science capability within their area of ORL, responding to a series of statements that reflect the domains of the science capability framework.

The data collection tools are undergoing piloting and revision prior to wider implementation later in 2005. The suitability of the framework for the MARD environment will be determined in 2006.

The project is focused on enhancing evaluation efforts both in Department of Primary Industries, Victoria (DPI) and in Vietnam, in the Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development (MARD). The project has 2 streams of work:

To develop evaluation procedures for agricultural Research and Development in MARD, and
To develop a procedure for evaluating complex concepts, with science capability in 'Our Rural Landscapes' (ORL) as the study case, initially for use in DPI, with later application, where appropriate, to R & D in MARD.

The project, now in its second year, has made considerable progress against objectives.

In relation to the first stream of work, a number of key activities have been successfully undertaken including:

- Further training has been delivered to the Vietnamese Evaluation officers in Vietnam. This has been undertaken by the DPI Project Leader, who used this training to reinforce key evaluation methodologies delivered in the initial training phases.
- The case studies identified in the first year, have been undertaken with significant learnings identified by the MARD Evaluation Officers. Changes in the approaches to the evaluation have been suggested by the MARD Evaluation team and will be implemented in the next case studies.
- Significantly, the MARD Evaluation officers have established the requirement and desire to deliver evaluation training further across MARD in the future. The development of a training package for delivery in Vietnam is underway, and cooperative review of the training course will be undertaken by MARD and DPI evaluation staff. The delivery of 'Train The Trainer' programs have been scheduled for the third year of the project and will be delivered by specialist evaluation and training consultants. This will be supported by a follow up visit to Vietnam by DPI evaluation staff early in year 3 of the project.

The loss of the Australian Youth Ambassador working in MARD has had an impact on the close working relationship that had developed by having strong evaluation leadership in MARD. A long distance working partnership is now developing between the MARD and the DPI Evaluation staff members.

Pleasing progress has also been made in relation to the second work stream.

Through the delivery of the Concept Mapping Workshops, a series of indicators were generated, these were mapped against the Science Capability domains identified through the research process. Using the Australian Business Excellence Framework (ABEF) as a guide, a Science Capability Framework (SCF) has been developed. The SCF has been trailed on 2 occasions, with modifications and improvements made form test results. A final version will be rolled out in a broader context in the first half of year three.

There was a number of challenging aspects of the Concept Mapping which suggest that undertaking the Concept Mapping workshops in Vietnam would be problematic. The consultant engaged to undertake the concept mapping, amongst the most experienced in Australia, failed to deliver the outcomes in a timely manner and in a format that allows for full and proper use in the project. Due to the structure of MARD, and the cultural construct of not critiquing others in the organisation, concept mapping may not be the most appropriate method of workshopping with staff to determine indicators of science capability. Our current experience is that this approach is not providing the benefits hoped for and is not recommended for use in Vietnam.

The Vietnamese MARD officers have reviewed the SCF and are prepared to work on the existing indicators and methodology around the SCF to produce a framework that suits the MARD environment. This will be developed further during the year.

Monitoring and Evaluation has been embraced by MARD and now has an allocated and dedicated budget of 3% of the total National R & D Budget. A briefing paper titled, "Current Situation of Evaluation of Research & Development projects in the Agriculture sector in Vietnam" outlines this organisational approach now being undertaken by Vietnam.

The Evaluation Model developed by the project is now being implemented and is an effective use in MARD's R & D projects.

A short extension was agreed to for the project to facilitate attendance by the group at the Australian Evaluation Association Annual Conference. This facilitated presentation of project results and peer assessment . The final report is being prepared as part of the Conference attendance and will be delivered by the end of 2007.

This progress summary covers approximately 6 months of project activity since conclusion of the Project Agreement in May 2004. The first objective of the project and primary focus of project activity during the period has been to progress the establishment of two Serial Biological Concentration (SBC) demonstration sites in Punjab and Sindh provinces. Initial site identification was carried out by NARC in Pakistan. Site assessments made by NARC were provided as reports to the Australian team members in July. Review of these reports identified that supplementary information was required to assess site suitability, and this was provided by NARC in September. The information provided was sufficient for some preliminary modelling and assessment of site suitability to be carried out, but was not adequate for detailed system design purposes. The Australian team's conclusion was that site assessment first hand was required to be confident that the sites were appropriate and that system designs were suitable. Australian team members Mike Morris, Shahbaz Khan, Zahra Paydar and Alfred Heuperman visited Pakistan in December and were able to confirm the suitability of two sites, in Punjab and in Sindh. Additional field work undertaken during the visit provided sufficient data to design SBC systems for each site.

The second objective is to analyse the financial viability of SBC systems in Punjab, Sindh and the Murray Darling Basin. Acquisition of Pakistan SBC data will commence once SBC system designs have been concluded and construction and operation the SBC sites in Pakistan occurs. In the meantime, information on agricultural productivity with respect salinity and waterlogging in both Pakistan and the Murray Darling Basin is being compiled. The project team has collected detailed data sets on agricultural water productivity, hydrogeology and economics in the Murrumbidgee catchment. A number of background reports on crop yields and economics at different watertable depths and salinity levels were collected from the Mona Reclamation Centre in Punjab Pakistan and Drainage Research Institute in Sindh.

The third project objective is to assess the scope for adoption of SBC technology in the irrigation areas of the Murray Darling Basin. .A preliminary assessment of SBC technology for whole of the Murrumbdigee Irrigation Area (MIA) was carried out in a GIS environment to evaluate most suitable sites for managing saline drainage effluents from the MIA. This work was aimed at developing a generic suitability index that can be used for other areas in the Murray Darling Basin.

Objective 4 is to develop an analytical framework to assist in the selection of the best management system for a range of saline drainage effluents. In development of the analytical framework, work has initially focussed on the knowledge requirements for management of salt mobilisation at regional scale in southeast Australia where the primary drivers are reducing water quality impacts on rivers and improving the efficiency of water use within irrigation regions. A review of priority R&D needs for drainage water management in northern Victoria has been undertaken in consultation with regional stakeholders. Common information needs included improving the quantification of salt mobilisation processes and the effects of management options on the salinity of the Murray River, understanding the long-term implications of irrigation water trade on salt mobilisation, increasing regional capacity for review of investigations completed by consultants, sharing knowledge of the management of salt mobilisation between regions, and integrating knowledge to benefit implementation of regional Land and Water Management Plans. The Shepparton Irrigation Region Sub-Surface Drainage Working Group was used to workshop the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of drainage water management options. Factors identified by the group will need to be included in the evaluation of each option and could be broadly grouped into five categories - economic assessment/agricultural productivity, short term processes affecting drainage salt load and flow, long-term processes affecting salt balance and sustainablity, impacts on environmental features, and community factors.

The first objective of the project and a focus of project activity during the period has been to progress the establishment of two Serial Biological Concentration (SBC) demonstration sites in Punjab and Sindh provinces. Following a site assessment trip in Dec 2004, suitable sites were identified on a privately owned and operated farm at Bhalwal in Punjab and on the PARC research farm near Thatta in Sindh.
The site designs were finalised during January and February. At Bhalwal a 1 ha, tile-drained Stage A was designed to be irrigated from an existing shallow tubewell (1.5 dS/m). Stage B, 0.35 ha, was designed to be irrigated with the tile drain effluent from Stage A, and Stage C (0.1 ha) to be irrigated with the tile drain effluent from Stage B. The tile drain effluent from Stage C was designed to be pumped to a small pond. At Thatta, Stage A was designed to be 1.4 ha and irrigated by surface water of 0.8 dS/m. Stage B was designed to be 0.5 ha and irrigated using the tile drain effluent from Stage A, with the 0.2 ha Stage C irrigated by effluent from Stage B tile drains. The effluent from Stage C tiles was designed to be pumped to a small pond.
Construction of both sites occurred in the period March to June. Significant problems were experienced during construction due to flooding of excavated trenches by groundwater and slumping of trench walls.
Representatives of the Australian team visited both sites in June after construction at Bhalwal was completed and during construction at Thatta. The selection of an initial maize crop was made at both sites, and the establishment of monitoring protocols was discussed at each site. The Pakistan team did an outstanding job to complete construction of both sites in time for late sowing of an initial Kharif maize crop in August. Unfortunately, torrential rains at both sites and flooding at the Thatta site ruined the initial crop. Both sites were subsequently prepared for a winter wheat crop which was sown in November. Australian team member, Shahbaz Khan, visited both sites during December. A brochure explaining the project was prepared for use in Pakistan.

The second objective is to analyse the financial viability of SBC systems in Punjab, Sindh and the Murray Darling Basin. Acquisition of relevant Pakistan SBC data has commenced and information on agricultural productivity with respect salinity and waterlogging in both Pakistan and the Murray Darling Basin continues to be compiled. A financial model for SBC developed for the Murrumbidgee region has been assessed to be a very suitable tool that can be adapted for wider application in the Murray Darling Basin and Pakistan.

The third project objective is to assess the scope for adoption of SBC technology in the irrigation areas of the Murray Darling Basin. A Geographical Information System has been used to develop a regional SBC suitability analysis, using estimates of thresholds for SBC suitability criteria in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (MIA), Shepparton Irrigation Region (SIR) and the Murray Irrigation Limited (MIL) area of the MDB. The aim of the analysis was to provide a ranking of the relative suitability of land for SBC application within these regions, based on biophysical factors. Suitability thresholds were defined separately for each of the physical factors (groundwater depth and salinity, soil hydraulic conductivity and salinity), and then combined to derive suitability classes which reflect the relative probability of finding suitable land for SBC.

Objective 4 is to develop an analytical framework to assist in the selection of the best management system for a range of saline drainage effluents. Work on developing a framework for comparing different options for managing subsurface drainage water is progressing. The options for managing sub-surface drainage and implications for salt mobilisation have been conceptually grouped into four categories:
i) Reduce sub-surface drainage.
ii) Regional redistribution.
iii) Local storage.
iv) Export of salt to river.

Objective 1: Establish and test as a proof of concept SBC technology at two sites in Pakistan (Punjab and Sindh)
Demonstration sites were established in Sindh (near Thatta) and Punjab (near Bhalwal) during 2005. By the start of 2006 both sites had been sown to a wheat crop on all SBC stages. The crop at Thatta was subsequently lost due to flooding. Our visit in March identified operational improvements needed at each site.
- At Thatta the monitoring of water and salt flows and the operation of the sumps needed improvement. Stage B was not yet in production and a significant weed problem (canegrass) was apparent.
- At Bhalwal the tile drains were found to be blocked with silt. Limited sump volume below the drainage collector pipes was identified as a probable contributing factor because the drainage laterals could not be maintained in a freely draining state.
Programs for improving management and monitoring prior to sowing the next crop were developed with the managers at each site.
At the Bhalwal site attempts were made during April and May to clear the tile drain laterals, but without success. Monitoring data and soil EC profile data clearly indicated that there was insufficient rootzone drainage occurring in each stage and that there was insufficient drainage water from each stage to meet the crop water requirement of the next stage. In June the tile drainage system was replaced by two skimming wells, one located in the centre of Stage A supplying irrigation to Stage B, the other in the centre of Stage B supplying irrigation water to Stage C.
Both sites were sown to rice on all stages for the kharif season. Rice was chosen because
- it is a common and valuable kharif crop local know how to grow
- it is tolerant of inundation, likely to occur at the Thatta site in particular, and
- ponding could help reclaim the sites by leaching salt from the rootzone.
The Australian team visit in September highlighted further issues at both sites, which were detailed in the subsequent travel report. In summary, the site management at Bhalwal was of a high standard. The rice crop was variable but generally growing well. Soil profile ECs indicated that rootzone leaching was occurring, however the skimming wells installed in June had been installed too deeply for SBC. At Thatta the site management was poor. The site had recently been inundated and surface water control was ineffective, subsurface drainage was inadequate. There was very limited measurement of water flows on and off Stages. The crop was poor and weed infested.
A detailed work plan was developed for the Thatta site. Australian team member Shahbaz Khan subsequently visited the Thatta site in late December and noted that the work program was being implemented, with significant improvements to the water management and weed control. A wheat crop had been successfully established on Stage A, and barley on Stages B and C.

Objective 2: Analyse the financial viability of SBC in Punjab, Sindh and the Murray Darling Basin.
A financial model for SBC developed for the Murrumbidgee region was assessed in 2005 to be a very suitable tool that could be adapted for wider application in the Murray Darling Basin and Pakistan. In 2006 the tool has been adapted for wider use on the Murray Darling Basin and has been applied to an evaluation of SBC for management of saline flows in Box Creek, NSW.

Objective 3: Assess the scope for adoption of SBC technology in the irrigation areas of the Murray Darling Basin.
A Geographical Information Systems (GIS) based approach was used in regional suitability analysis, using estimates of thresholds for the SBC suitability criteria in three irrigation areas (Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (MIA), Shepparton Irrigation Region (SIR) and the Murray Irrigation Limited (MIL) Area in the MDB. The main aim of the analysis was to provide a coarse scale ranking of the relative suitability of land for SBC application within the regions. Here we only considered the main physical factors for defining the suitability thresholds. Socio-economic factors associated with SBC application such as loss of land, proximity to roads and facilities have not been considered in this analysis. SBC suitability maps for MIA and SIR are now available. These maps are being further refined by using alternative indices combining water table, salinity and soils data.

Objective 4: Develop an analytical framework to assist in the selection of the best management system for a range of saline drainage effluents.
A salinity management Knowledge Integration Framework has been developed using a Bayesian network approach. The framework captures and integrates knowledge about salinity management and supports strategic decisions on how to manage salt at a range of scales. The framework was developed by a technical working group of acknowledged experts, that in an iterative series of workshops developed an agreed conceptual representation of the regional groundwater system in the form of a cause-and-effect diagram. The process followed was:
1. Existing knowledge was collated
2. Key outcome measures for salt management were identified
3. A conceptual representation of the system was developed
4. Knowledge gaps and areas of uncertainty in current understanding were identified
5. The impacts and identified risks of current management strategies were tested
The framework and process used to develop it have proved to be very beneficial. There is now agreement and common understanding of the whole system by senior irrigation water supply engineers, catchment managers, researchers and policy makers. Discussions are now more focussed, but at the same time consider the whole system.
In the Shepparton Irrigation Region the framework has been used to identify thirty knowledge gaps in our current understanding of groundwater management impacts on the shallow groundwater system. It has also been used to identify and prioritise potential risks from the disposal of subsurface drainage to irrigation supply channels and surface drains.
Outcomes of the work have included:
- Enhanced knowledge exchange and collaboration between the Department of Primary Industries and Goulburn-Murray Water
- Restructure of Subsurface Drainage Coordinating Group meetings to incorporate technical forums for strategic thinking
- Reprioritisation of the Research and & Investigations Strategy, with the inclusion of additional issues identified through the Knowledge Integration Framework.

Activities to date have concentrated on meeting project objectives:

1) Analysis of production and handling systems to determine risk factors leading to spoilage and contamination, and 3) Improved monitoring of human pathogen contamination risks during fresh vegetable handling and marketing. The project formally began with a start-up workshop held in Beijing during September and October 2004. Participants included staff from the partner organisations and from the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Discussions and site visits gave participants an understanding of past and current project interests and the capabilities of each organisation. Structured sessions reviewed the current science on each project topic and developed the experimental details for each subproject. After the workshop, Chinese and Australian partners collaboratively conducted process audits of 4 fresh vegetable supply chains in the Beijing area. These audits mapped the process flow from production to retail, identified the human and plant health hazards, the control points and the verification steps practised. Steps requiring investigation and / or improvement were identified.

Following the process audit, researchers from the China Agricultural University began a microbiological contamination audit on three types of fresh vegetables (pak choi, carrots and tomato) from these supply chains. The audit consisted of sampling vegetables at harvest, during washing and at retail and also sampling from 5 environmental sources (soil, organic fertiliser, irrigation water, wash water before use and used-wash water). Tests are determining the total plate count, E. coli/coliform counts and enterococci populations in the samples. In addition, the presence/absence of pathogens (Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes) will be determined on the products at retail.

CAAS IVF scientists have completed experiments to investigate the influence of cultivar, inoculum concentration (Erwinia carotovora), packaging, temperature and time on the incidence and severity of bacterial soft rot of pak choi and carrot. An experiment is planned for July 2005 to determine the influence of these factors on Botrytis rot of tomato. Tomatoes were planted at the Nankou station of IVF in April to prepare for this experiment.

DPI scientists completed a trial demonstrating a strong influence of plant nutrition on the susceptibility of pak choi to bacterial soft rot. Statistical analysis is pending, however, high levels of calcium in plant tissue have been shown to increase resistance to pathogens, most probably due to its role in strengthening and stabilising the cell wall and membranes, while high rates of nitrogen fertilisation have been associated with decreased resistance. The interaction of these two nutrients can play a part in determining the storage life. Generally high levels of nitrogen lead to very vigorous growth and depressed root development, both of which may lead to lower levels of calcium being distributed to expanding leaves. This is likely to lead to low nitrogen and high calcium treatments being more disease resistant.

FSA scientists have conducted a comprehensive literature review on Enterococcus spp and their significance for fresh vegetables. Enterococcus faecalis has a limited host range, being more specific to human, dog and chicken faeces, suggesting E. faecalis is an ideal contamination indicator for microbial source tracking. A collection of presumptive enterococcal cultures has been isolated from fresh pak choi obtained from supermarkets in Melbourne. A genetic database search has identified up to three regions within the 16S rRNA gene unique to E. faecalis and appropriate PCR primers have been developed. A PCR system targeting a region of the 16S rRNA gene has been established for the specific detection of E. faecalis. The PCR system has been demonstrated to project partners from CAU during their visit to Australia in March 2005. In addition, during the visit to CAU in June 2005, the FSA sub-project leader assisted and established capabilities at CAU for isolation of Enterococci from vegetable and environmental samples, and for the E. faecalis PCR system.

China partners from IVF and CAU visited Melbourne from March 10th to 22nd 2005. In addition to participating in experiments described above, the project team observed supply chains from farm to retail. An excursion to the Western Irrigation District Recycled Water Scheme examined the production of class A reclaimed water for the vegetable industry. Discussions and site visits to DPI and FSA gave the IVF and CAU partners a detailed understanding of the interests and capabilities of DPI and FSA.

1 Analysis of production and postharvest systems to determine risk factors leading to spoilage and contamination and development of recommendations for risk management.
In the second year, work on this objective investigated:

The influence of plant nutrition during production on the susceptibility to postharvest disease and quality.
The concentration of human pathogens and faecal indicator organisms on vegetables in the supply chain and levels of these organisms in the farm environment.

Calcium and nitrogen have critical roles in plant structure and function which influence the plants resistance to spoilage. DPI scientists conducted hydroponic experiments to observe the influence of these minerals and their interaction on the development of postharvest rots in pak choi (a leafy vegetable) and tomatoes (a fruiting vegetable). Pak choi plants given low nitrogen / high calcium treatments, better resisted attack by the spoilage bacterium Erwinia carotovora and maintained their quality longest during a shelf life test. However tomatoes from plants fed with moderate and high doses of nitrogen were less susceptible to rotting by Botrytis cinerea.

An experiment was also conducted to observe the effect of the irrigation water source on postharvest quality. Iceberg lettuce irrigated with river water, reclaimed water and a mixture of the two was assessed for quality after storage and simulated marketing. The lettuce irrigated with river water had more severe rot development. Work is continuing to investigate the reason for this.

A comprehensive microbiological contamination audit on pak choi, carrots and tomato from three representative farms is being completed in China by CAU. The audit collected samples of produce at 3 points of the supply chain (harvest, after washing and retail) and sampled 5 environmental sources (soil, organic fertiliser, irrigation water, clean wash water and post-wash water). Samples were analysed for total plate counts, E. coli, coliform, and enterococci populations. Vegetables from retail were also tested for the presence of pathogens (Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes). With the exception of clean wash water, all samples were positive for Enterococcus spp and E. coli, suggesting potential faecal contamination of the vegetables.

2 Development and testing of strategies for decontaminating wash-water and introduction of hygienic postharvest systems for vegetables.
IVF scientists are completing experiments to investigate the influence of washing and sanitising on rot development of carrot, tomato and pak choi. Experiments investigated the impact of washing method, sanitiser type and contact time on the incidence and severity of rot. Results to date demonstrated that:

100 ppm sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is the best sanitiser for carrots cleaned by brushing, whilst clean water is sufficient for hand washing carrots (small farmer practice)
Sanitised water was better than tap water for washing pak choi -the optimal treatment was soaking for 1 minute then agitating for 5 seconds in 5 ppm CLO2.

An experiment on tomato is underway.

3 Improved monitoring of human pathogen contamination risks during fresh vegetable handling and marketing.
DPI has been testing the hypothesis that Enterococci may persist longer on vegetables than E. coli, and would therefore make a better sanitary indicator. Inoculated Cos lettuce was stored at 4, 21 and 37C, over a period of 3 weeks. The persistences of both species were similar whilst the lettuce was in a marketable condition. An experiment on tomatoes is nearing completion. CAU have conducted complementary work which has shown after selective growth enrichment Enterococci and E. faecalis were detected more frequently on fresh vegetables than E. coli.

FSA have developed individual Enterococcus (genus specific) and E. faecalis (species specific) PCR methods. These have been further developed into a multiplex PCR which enables the simultaneous detection of both Enterococcus and E. faecalis in one single test. The multiplex PCR has been tested on a selection of reference Enterococcus spp. and closely related non-Enterococcus cultures (Streptococcus thermophilus, Aerococcus viridans and Listeria monocytogenes). The project has collected a further 15 reference Enterococci from (BCCM), 22 Enterococcus wild-type cultures obtained from sampling in 2004/05 and a further 97 putative wild-type Enterococcus cultures isolated from vegetable, soil and irrigation water samples. These cultures will be used for the further validation of the multiplex PCR. The E. faecalis specific PCR has been used by CAU scientists for specific detection of E. faecalis in vegetable and environmental samples in China.

4 Development of technical capacities for hygienic handling of fresh vegetables and human pathogen contaminant monitoring
There were three exchange visits made by project staff in the reporting period and these have enabled learning through collaborative research, in-depth discussion of experimental methods and statistical design and comparative analysis of the vegetable supply chains of both Australia and China.

The most significant training event was a workshop conducted in Beijing on the 8th and 9th of December 2005. This was hosted by IVF CAAS and conducted in collaboration with project team members from DPIV. The main focus was on quality and contamination risks and ultimately the development of a framework for good agricultural practice (GAP). The participants were the potential users and trainers from leading organisations.

Analysis of production and postharvest systems to determine risk factors leading to spoilage and contamination and development of recommendations for risk management.
DPIV investigated the influence of the irrigation water source on postharvest quality of iceberg lettuce, cos lettuce and broccoli. Vegetables irrigated with river water, reclaimed water and a mixture of the two (shandy) were assessed for harvested yield and quality retention after storage and simulated marketing. There was a trend of reduced yield in both recycled and shandy treatments, although yield reduction was only significant in iceberg lettuce irrigated with recycled water. Following storage, quality and storage life were similar in all treatments, however, lettuce irrigated with river water developed more severe rot. It is theorised that this lettuce which was higher yielding, was more susceptible to disease.
Vegetables were examined for pathogen indicators (thermotolerant coliforms, E. coli, Enterococcus spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Salmonella spp.). Out of 85 vegetable samples, 5 samples (1 river, 3 shandy, 1 recycled) had detectable levels of one or more indicators.

DPIV has been investigating the persistence of E. coli and enterococci on vegetables after harvest. In year 3, experiments were conducted on lettuce, tomato and carrot stored at 4, 21 and 37C, for 3 weeks. On carrot, populations of both pathogens declined steadily over time at all temperatures. On tomato, however, populations of both pathogens changed little over 21 days. On both tomatoes and lettuce enterococci were more persistent than E. coli at high temperature, suggesting enterococci would be a better indicator on these vegetables. DPIV also investigated the influence of mechanical damage in the field on the establishment and persistence of E. coli on lettuce heads after harvest. Lettuce plants were injured to simulate chewing insect damage at several intervals prior to inoculation with E. coli. Plants were watered with a mixture of E. coli strains. Watering with contaminated water within 2 days following injury or within 5 days of harvest was shown to be high risk.

CAU completed a comprehensive microbiological contamination audit of fresh vegetables (54 samples of 6 vegetables from 2 farms, preharvest, after preparation for market and at retail). The 6 vegetables were cucumber, green pepper, radish, celery, lettuce and purple cabbage, all of which could be consumed fresh. Counts were made of total aerobic, yeasts and moulds, total coliforms, Enterococcus and Enterococcus faecalis. Total aerobic counts were higher on vegetables after trimming and preparation and from retail shelves than before harvest. The increase was attributed to workers' hygiene and the transfer of soil onto the leaves during trimming. The washing process was also not thorough. At retail, vegetables were at room temperature, which may have encouraged microbial growth. Enterococcus was found on cucumber, lettuce and purple cabbage sampled preharvest, after handling and from retail, and green pepper sampled after handling and from retail. Enterococcus faecalis was found on cucumber pre-harvest.

2. Development and testing of strategies for decontaminating wash-water and introduction of hygienic postharvest systems for vegetables.
IVF scientists completed experiments to investigate the influence of washing and sanitising on rot development of tomato. Experiments investigated the impact of washing method, sanitiser type and contact time on the incidence and severity of rot. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) was shown to be the best sanitiser for tomato. The optimal treatment was soaking for 1 minute in 100ppm NaOCl at 35C. Tomatoes treated this way developed less than 10% rot following 7 days storage at ambient temperature.

3. Improved monitoring of human pathogen contamination risks during fresh vegetable handling and marketing.
In order to validate PCR for the identification of E. faecalis, FSA scientists isolated 110 wild-type putative Enterococci cultures from fresh vegetable, soil and irrigation water samples and identified the species using the API biochemical tests (bioMerieux). A total of 58 of these wild-type Enterococci cultures have been tested using the multiplex E. faecalis/Enterococci species PCR system developed in this project.
Experiments are also in progress using the most probable number (MPN) technique in combination with the multiplex PCR for determination of detection sensitivity on naturally existing Enterococci, and challenged 5-strain Enterococci mix in fresh vegetable samples. The method successfully detected Enterococcus spp and E. faecalis inoculated at 10 to 100 cfu/g in fresh salad vegetables.

4. Development of technical capacities for hygienic handling of fresh vegetables and human pathogen contaminant monitoring
Mr Zhang Xuejie (IVF CAAS) visited Australia in February 2007 to participate in experiments and attend a project planning and review meeting. Mr Zhang learned hygiene assessment techniques in studies conducted on harvest containers and packing lines. At FSA he trained in PCR techniques with project team. Project staff attended 3 technical conferences to improve their knowledge.

Following a review in May 2007 the project has been extended to enable knowledge transfer.
The objectives of the extension are to:
maximise the uptake of improved postharvest practices by the vegetable industry in the Beijing district, reducing food safety and spoilage risks.
to continue building the technical capacities within the partner organisations for research and development in postharvest technology, postharvest pathology and food safety
to attain recognition for the project and inform the research community by publishing findings in scientific journals.
Activities in 2007/08 concentrated on evaluating the processes in the vegetable supply chain from a food safety and product quality perspective and identifying the needs and priorities for process improvement. While there are over 40,000 vegetable growers in the Beijing region, 35% of produce is consolidated and distributed by fewer than 12 large companies. Eight of these companies participated in the process evaluation workshops and will benefit from an ongoing involvement in the project. The evaluations are also being used to develop guidelines for the production of safe, quality vegetables, which will be published later this year.

Experiments are underway to investigate the potential for ultrasonic washing to reduce spoilage and contamination risks. Tertiary students are assisting with these experiments on pak choi, carrot, spinach and tomato.

Mr Zhang Xuejie from the Institute for Vegetables and Flowers led a study tour by executives from the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences to Australia in April 2008. The group examined vegetable supply chains in operation and met with the food safety and postharvest horticulture researchers at DPI and Food Science Australia to overview current research. The purpose was to assist the Chinese partner organisations to develop and to gain organisational support for postharvest horticulture projects.

Two scientific papers and one conference abstract have been submitted for publication. Further research outcomes will be presented in two international conferences to be held in Beijing in the second half of 2008; The China International Food Safety and Quality Conference and Expo (September 24-25, 2008) and Vege2008Beijing (October 14-17, 2008).

Objective 1. Appropriate and effective screening/evaluation protocols identified for each key character listed.
During 2004 protocols to be used by all the collaborators for measuring agronomic and disease traits in the agronomy field trials were discussed and a protocol document was circulated for all collaborators to use.

The plant pathologist position at the University of Western Australia to develop screening/evaluation protocols for key disease characters was advertised in late 2004. The position has been filled and the research will be initiated in late February 2005. During 2004 isolates of Sclerotinia were collected in Western Australia.
A plant pathologist was also appointed on the project at the University of Melbourne during 2004 to investigate Australian white rust isolates. During 2004 Australian isolates of the white rust pathogen, Albugo candida, were collected and screening protocols for white rust resistance were initiated using the Australian isolates.
Disease resistance screening was also initiated in India.

Objective 3. Enhanced oilseed Brassica germplasm in all collaborating countries though germplasm exchange, crossing and selection.
The enhancement of Brassica germplasm in all countries for the key characters was initiated through the exchange of germplasm among the three countries. Twenty five Australian B. napus cultivars, 12 Australian B. juncea lines 20 Chinese B. napus cultivars were distributed to the collaborators in each country in late 2004. The seed arrived too late for sowing in the 2004/2005 season but the material was multiplied in India and China to provide a larger quantity of seed for the coming season's trials. In addition, some field observations were taken in India and analysis of fatty acid profile and oil content was undertaken.

Efforts were initiated to obtain government approvals for the distribution of the remaining lines (10 B. juncea lines from China and 22 B. juncea and 3 B. napus lines from India). A list of the characteristics of each of the lines was also distributed to all the collaborators. In total, the exchange of germplasm will result in field trials with 48 B. napus and 44 B. juncea lines. It is expected that all of the germplasm will be sown in each of the collaborating countries in the 2005/06 season.

Objective 4. Heterotic pools for production of elite germplasm or F1 hybrids identified from genetic distance studies on germplasm from all three collaborating countries.
The research associate position at UWA to study genetic variability/distance among the germplasm was advertised in late 2004 and the research will be initiated in 2005.

Objective 6. Scientific skills of Chinese and Indian scientists enhanced through scientific exchanges and training.
Indian scientists from each of the collaborating institutes visited Australia during the period 22nd Sep to 7th Oct. The visit included two meetings to discuss project plans, including exchange of seed. In addition, the visit included tours of canola field trials in Western Australia and NSW, visits to molecular and chemistry laboratories and meetings with key Brassica breeding and research personnel. This scientific exchange and training visit also involved the Indian collaborators participating in the 4th International Crop Science Congress in Brisbane and the Australian Oilseeds Federation Annual Conference in Melbourne.

Preparations for Dr Phil Salisbury and Assoc Prof Martin Barbetti's trip to India in January 2005 were undertaken during the visit of the Indian scientists.

Significant progress was made during 2005 to identify variability for key agronomic, quality and disease resistance characters through the use of screening protocols. The first exchange of germplasm of B. napus and B. juncea between Indian, China and Australia was completed by mid 2005 to allow sowing of field trials in the 2005/06 season. The material to be assessed in each country for the key characters consists of, B. napus: 25 Australian, 20 Chinese and 3 Indian lines and B. juncea: 22 Indian, 12 Australian and 10 Chinese lines. In Australia the field trials were sown in Vic, NSW, SA and WA and were harvested at the end of 2005. The data from these trials will be analysed in early 2006. In China the germplasm was sown at two sites in Wuhan in Sep/Oct 2005 and the key characters are currently being assessed. In India the germplasm was sown in Oct/Nov 2005 and to date emergence, early vigour and initiation of flowering data have been recorded. Results from a preliminary screening of Australian and Indian germplasm in India in the 2004/05 season indicated that there is substantial variability in key characters including date of emergence, seedling vigour, white rust incidence, oil and glucosinolate content and fatty acid composition. Screening and characterisation of B. juncea and B. napus for seedling stage thermotolerance and terminal stage heat tolerance is underway in the field and laboratory at HAU Hisar and PAU Ludhiana, India. Drought tolerance screening is also underway at HAU. Screening of germplasm for Sclerotinia was also initiated in 2005 at HAU, India and UWA, Australia. In Australia it was observed that most B. juncea germplasm was highly susceptible to Sclerotinia, based on the length of stem lesions, although there were some more resistant lines from Australia and China. Significant differences for white rust resistance between Australian B. juncea lines were also observed in WA.

During 2005 activities were initiated to enhance the germplasm in all countries for key characters through selection and breeding. At PAU, India interspecific hybridisation between B. napus and B. carinata / B. juncea was undertaken and desirable F2/BC1 plants from both the crosses will be backcrossed with selected Australian B. napus lines. At HAU, India 40 crosses have been made between Indian and Australian lines of B. juncea, and 60 crosses between Australian and Indian lines of B. napus are also being attempted this season. At TERI, India shattering tolerant B. napus lines (developed at TERI) have been sown and will be crossed with the Australian lines to transfer shatter tolerance. In NSW, Australia, 21 crosses were made between Sclerotinia tolerant Chinese lines and elite Australian lines and further crossing will be done in 2006.

Progress was made in 2005 towards the identification of genetic distance and heterotic pools. At UWA, useful SSR markers were identified on all chromosomes for estimation of genetic distance among B. napus lines from Australia, China and India, and selfing and purification of these lines began for future genetic studies. At HAU, China a preliminary experiment was conducted to assess marker techniques for genetic diversity analysis. Results indicated that SRAP (sequence-related amplified polymorphism) are distributed on all 19 chromosomes of B. napus more equally than AFLP and the technique is more efficient than SSR, so SRAP and SSR markers will be used to evaluate the genetic diversity of all B. napus and B. juncea lines. At PAU, India DNA isolation from all the B. juncea genotypes has also been completed.

During 2005 significant progress was made towards the objective of increasing the scientific skills of scientists collaborating in the project through scientific exchanges. Dr Abha Agnihotri, Dr Dhiraj Singh and Dr Surinder Banga visited Australia in 2005 for a scientific interaction/study program. The program included 3 days of NIR training at Wagga Wagga Research Institute, visits to Brassica trials in NSW, Victoria and SA, meetings with scientists at CSIRO, Canberra, a meeting with John Cullen and attendance at the Australian Research Assembly on Brassicas (Port Lincoln, SA). Dr Maharaj Singh (NRCRM, Bharatpur) also visited Australia from Sep to Dec 2005 for training. Dr Singh conducted a drought tolerance project supervised by Dr Rob Norton (University of Melbourne) at DPI Horsham. Dr Singh learned to use a range of equipment, visited scientists at CSIRO and ANU Canberra to discuss drought screening and also attended the Australian Research Assembly on Brassicas. Assoc Prof Phil Salisbury and Assoc Prof Martin Barbetti visited India in February 2005 for discussions with project collaborators. In addition, Dr Martin Barbetti and Dr Caixia Li attended the International Sclerotinia Workshop in California in June 2005. Following this workshop, Dr Li visited Huazhong Agricultural University and Wuhan Oil Crops Research Institute, China, where she met with oilseed Brassica scientists working on this ACIAR project, and, in particular, had the opportunity to assess and develop common approaches on study of Scelorotinia disease.

Advances were made in 2006 in the development of screening protocols for sclerotinia and white rust resistance. Severity of Sclerotinia infection was found to be related to stem diameter and stem lesion length 3 weeks after inoculation was significantly and positively correlated with the percentage of plant death at maturity, which indicated the value of the stem inoculation method for the effective identification of Sclerotinia resistance under field conditions (UWA-B). Assessment of white rust screening protocols demonstrated that controlled environmental conditions are suitable for rapid identification of resistant genotypes and that genotypes with high levels of resistance can be reliably identified at either the cotyledonary, seedling, or flowering stages (UWA-B). Pathotyping experiments of the white rust pathogen have identified only race 2 pathotype 2A isolates in Australia to date (UM). Further surveying is underway to determine if the virulent pathotype (2V) is present in Australia.
During 2006 considerable progress was made in the identification of variability for key agronomic, quality and disease resistance characters in the Indian, Chinese and Australian B. napus and B. juncea germplasm in each country. In addition, breeding programs to enhance the germplasm in all countries for shatter resistance, disease resistance, agronomy and quality and drought tolerance characters progressed. Crossing programs, which were initiated in 2005, have advanced significantly, and the first generation of populations developed from the crosses have been sown and are currently being screened.
Some key characters that were identified in the germplasm screening that will be beneficial to the breeding of improved lines for each country included: white rust resistance in Australian and Chinese B. juncea lines; low erucic acid and low glucosinolate levels in Chinese and Australian B. napus and B. juncea lines; drought tolerance in Australian B. juncea lines; variation for Sclerotinia tolerance among all B. napus lines (varied among locations); potential blackleg resistance in Chinese and Indian B. juncea germplasm in Australia
Cluster analysis of Australian and Indian B. napus and B. juncea varieties by HAU and PAU showed no association between geographical distance and divergence based on morpho-physiological traits as genotypes from different locations fall in the same group and vice versa, which may be due to continuous exchange of germplasm.
Extensive work was undertaken in China (HZAU, IOCR, XAAS), India (HAU, PAU) and Australia (UWA-C) during 2006 to identify genetic distance, heterotic pools and heritability of key traits in the germplasm. Dendrograms showing the relationships among the 48 B. napus lines have been prepared at UWA-C and HZAU. Clustering in the HZAU dendrogram indicated that the Chinese B. napus lines were relatively more genetically diverse. Clustering in the UWA-C diagram showed the clear distinction of Indian B. napus to accessions from other countries, and a higher proportion of "private alleles" in Indian and some Chinese accessions. Genetic distance analysis of B. juncea is also underway at UWA-C.
Crosses have been made for hybrid vigour studies and at most institutes the F1 generations have been sown or will be sown soon. At UWA-C, selections were made for F1 hybrid evaluation based on the most homozygous selfed plants from each accession. Results from India (PAU), indicate that hybrids involving Australian B. napus germplasm and Indian non canola types were most productive. In China, (HZAU), examination of B. napus hybrids at the vegetative stage found positive mid-parent heterosis. Analysis of hybrid vigour in B. juncea was undertaken in China (XAAS) with diallel crosses using five Australian and five Chinese lines. The productivity of most of the F1s was higher than their parents and although the maturity of the varieties from both Australia and China was similar, the maturity of F1 was later than their parents.
Preliminary data has been generated in China to study the relationship between hybrid performance of B. napus and genetic distance. Results from IOCR indicate the performance of hybrids for yield traits was not consistent with genetic distances, although the genetic distances did show correlation with hybrid performance to a certain degree. At HZAU, neither a positive nor negative relationship was observed between molecular genetic distance and mid-parent heterosis for seedling traits of the F1 hybrids. Further analysis is underway to determine whether or not correlations exist between F1 seedling characters and F1 yield and yield-related characters, and between F1 yield and yield-related characters and their parents' molecular genetic distance.
During 2006 significant progress was also made towards the objective of increasing the scientific skills of scientists collaborating in the project through scientific exchanges. Mr Wan Zhengjie (PhD student), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, began 5 months of molecular biology training at UWA in Assoc Prof Wallace Cowling's laboratory on 30 October 2006. Mr Wan Zhengjie will work on two projects at UWA: (i) identification of a gene for male sterility in B. juncea, and (ii) genetic distance studies on B. juncea in the ACIAR project collection. Mr Mei Desheng, Oil Crops Research Institute, Wuhan, began 6 months of molecular biology training at CSIRO Plant Industry with Dr Allan Green in mid November 2006. Mr Mei Desheng's project will involve cloning of a range of fatty acid biosynthesis genes from the Crambe abyssinica oilseed species.

During 2007 the second round of screening of the series I B. napus and B. juncea germplasm from India, China and Australia was completed. Useful variation for several key agronomic, quality and disease resistance characters in the germplasm from each country was confirmed. The best performing lines have been used in breeding programs to enhance the germplasm in all countries for shatter resistance, disease resistance, agronomic and quality traits and drought tolerance. The second series of germplasm exchange was also undertaken in 2007, with 58 B. napus lines (25 Chinese, 2 Indian and 31 Australian) and 60 B. juncea lines (20 Chinese, 23 Indian and 17 Australian) exchanged.
Some key traits were identified in the series II germplasm screening that will be beneficial to the breeding of improved lines for each country. These included white rust resistance in Australian B. juncea lines, low erucic acid and low glucosinolate levels in Chinese and Australian B. napus and B. juncea lines, Sclerotinia resistance in Chinese and Australian lines, terminal stage thermotolerance in Australian B. napus and Chinese B. juncea lines and seedling stage thermotolerance in Indian B. juncea lines, blackleg resistance in Australian B. juncea lines and shatter resistance in Indian and Australian B. napus lines.
In 2007, advances were made in verifying shatter resistance screening techniques. A very high correlation between the results of visual shatter observations and percentage of pod shattering on the main stem of Brassica lines that were left standing in the field 4 weeks post maturity was observed in India, indicating that either method is valuable for estimating shatter resistance.
The genetic distance analyses of the series I B. napus and B. juncea germplasm, using the SSR technique, was completed in 2007. Cluster analysis of the data showed abundant genetic diversity among the lines of both species, and will assist breeders in their selection of the most diverse lines to widen their genepools.
The first F1 hybrid field trials of 13 B. napus parents and 84 F1 hybrids were conducted in Australia (WA, NSW, Vic), China (2 sites in Wuhan) and India (Punjab) in 2007-08. The F1 hybrid seed produced by hand-crossing in 2006 was distributed in 2007 together with seed of pure breeding lines of the parents. The parallel trials were designed with a special spatial randomisation program with 1-3 replicates per entry. The first data were received from Australian sites at the end of 2007. Seven agronomic traits were measured (vegetative vigour, date of 50% flowering, height of first branch, height of first pod, mature height, seed yield and 1000-seed weight) and data analysis is underway using a multi-environment trials analysis. Heterosis measured in F1 hybrids and combining ability measured in diallel crosses of pure lines and the relationship between molecular genetic distance and heterosis will be reported.
F1 seed produced from the second series of exchanged germplasm has been or will be sent to collaborators in 2008 for F1 hybrid trials in Australia (WA, NSW, Vic), China (1 site in Wuhan) and India (Punjab, Harayana) in 2008-09.
Analysis of the relationship between molecular genetic distance and heterosis was also carried out in an additional experiment in China using 12 parents and 36 hybrids. The lines were planted in two Chinese locations and 11 traits were recorded. Positive mid-parent heterosis and positive high-parent heterosis for seed yield were observed. Most of the correlation coefficients between molecular genetic distance and mid-parent heterosis were positive, but few items were at a significant level. However, when dividing hybrids into intra- and inter-regional hybrids, correlations between genetic distance and mid-parent heterosis increased among intra-regional hybrids for most traits especially siliquas per plant and seed yield per plant. The results indicated that it may be possible to predict heterosis by molecular markers among intra-regional hybrids.
During 2007 significant progress was also made towards the objective of increasing the scientific skills of scientists collaborating in the project through scientific exchanges. Mr Wan Zhengjie (PhD student), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, completed his 5 months of molecular biology training at UWA in Assoc Prof Wallace Cowling's laboratory. Likewise, Dr Mei Desheng, Oil Crops Research Institute, Wuhan, completed 6 months of molecular biology training at CSIRO Plant Industry with Dr Allan Green. In addition, Dr Chirantan Chattopadhyay (NRCRM, Bharatpur, India) undertook a 3 week training program in Australia in September 2007. Dr Chattopadhyay presented a paper at the Australian Research Assembly on Brassicas, participated in the pre-conference tour, met with project collaborators in WA, NSW and VIC, toured disease nurseries and attended a scientific writing workshop at the Australasian Plant Pathology conference.
In April 2007 a mid-term project progress meeting was held in Wuhan, China, and was attended by collaborators from each institute. The 3 day meeting consisted of presentations, trait group discussions and tours of laboratories and field trials.
In early 2008 (Jan 28 to Feb 3), a progress meeting was held in India. The meeting comprised a one day workshop, followed by visits to each of the collaborating institutes to inspect the exchanged lines in the field.