CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems

Objective 1
The first 12 months of the project have seen significant progress in all three objective areas. The program to evaluate forage legume species with potential for integration into the maize based farming systems has resulted in the identification of a set of plants which will now be taken forward into on-farm assessment during the 2007/08 season. These include Centrosema pascuorum, Clitoria ternatea, Dolichos lab lab, Macroptilium bracteatum, Desmanthus virgatus and Stylosanthes hamata. Whilst biomass production varies between sites and soil types the highest yielding species (Centrosema pascuorum and Dolichos lab lab) indicate the potential, producing in the range of 1000-4000 kg/ha dry matter in approx. 100 days. Whilst it is too early to gauge the impact of this production on nitrogen fixation it can be expected that there will be substantial contribution to nitrogen supply to a subsequent maize production. Whilst production from some other species matched the above levels the impact of disease or insect damage resulted in their exclusion from further evaluation at this time. Legume selection is both a result of identification of appropriate species through routine agronomic assessment, and farmer feedback on potential for system integration.

A critical component of developing forage legumes for NTT is to ensure that forage production becomes self reliant in terms of seed supply. This milestone has been reached during the first year with sufficient locally grown seed now available for immediate research needs and for the establishment of a more commercially based seed production activity which is planned to commence during the 2007/08 season.

Objective 2
Studies have commenced to evaluate the suitability of, and strategies for use of, the forage legumes within the Bali cattle management system in NTT. One of the major aims of developing use of fodder legumes is to provide continuity of supply of high quality fodder during periods when supply is currently limited, namely at the end of the dry season (September-November). Forage legumes provide an opportunity to use currently under-utilised stored soil moisture at the end of the wet season to grow fodder for later dry season use. The first on-station feeding trial has been completed, evaluating the live weight gain, feed intake and digestibility of Centrosema pascuorum, Clitoria ternatea, local Desmodium and Leucaena leucocephala (Tarramba) when fed to six month old weaned Bali calves. Whilst animal feeding data analysis is yet to be completed indications are that some forage legume species will contribute significantly to live weight gains but whether at the same level as Leucaena remains to be seen.

Current animal feeding research is focused on the evaluation of feed quality of crop residues (particularly maize and mung bean stover and rice bran) as well as the overall value of the supplementation of these residues with quantities of legume material. Work during 2007/08 will focus on:
Sequential feeding of a range of legumes as they come on stream during the dry season
In-village evaluation of fodder quality and animal liveweight gains
The development of systems to store the feed for late dry season utilisation.

Objective 3
The third objective of the project is to gain both an understanding of how representative the collaborating villages are of West Timorese society generally, to benchmark current practice and to monitor practice change over time. Benchmarking surveys have been undertaken in all of the collaborating villages. These surveys function to underpin understanding of the people and their farming systems with which we are working as well as a basis to build upon over time through continuing evaluation. These data are used to inform researchers on progress and impact as well as providing research direction and identification of potential challenges before they become major issues. This type of evaluation also provides a facility for the farmers to provide input into the research process ie participatory research.

The identification of underutilised soil water remaining at maize harvest, supplemented by late wet season rainfall, as resources for forage legumes production during the dry season has major implications for both animal and cereal crop production in the semi-arid cropping systems of West Timor. Research to date indicates that the forages have the potential to provide high quality supplementary feeding to livestock, particularly in the late dry season and supplement nitrogen supply to subsequent maize crops through fixation.
The first objective has been to identify and trial appropriate legumes within the farming system. Six legumes (Centrosema pascuorum, Clitoria ternatea, Lablab purpureus, Macroptilium bracteatum, Stylosanthes guianensis and Stylosanthes seabrana) were selected during the 2006/07 season on their biophysical attributes and the ability to fit within the existing farming system. It was shown that substantial quantities of forage could be produced over the dry season. At Biloto village (Timor Tengah Selatan regency) maximum biomass production for the annual species, Centrosema pascuorum (3.6 t DM/ha) and Lablab purpureus (4.3 t DM/ha) was achieved in 94 days (February sowing) whilst Clitoria ternatea continued to grow through the dry season producing 3.8 t DM/ha in 197 days. The perennial species Stylosanthes guianensis and Stylosanthes seabrana were slow to establish but produced 6.4 t and 9.7 t DM/ha in 197 days (3rd September).
These data support the hypotheses that legumes can be grown in the dry season on stored soil water. Characterisation of soil water holding capacity at trial locations found that the clays (Vertisols and Inceptisols) stored between 160 and 180 mm of water for crop use, whilst the clay loams (Alfisols), 140 mm. At the time of legume sowing in February the soil at Biloto was at field capacity (180 mm plant available water), 72 days later, by which time the legume Clitoria ternatea had produced 1.7 t DM/ha of biomass, there was still 145 mm of water remaining. During the following 130 days (from early May to early September) this water contributed to the production of an additional 2.1 t DM/ha.
During the 2007/08 wet season research has concentrated on integration of the legumes into the cropping system, either as relay crops after maize or as part of a longer term rotational sequence. Whilst this study will continue into the 08/09 season early results are encouraging. Relay cropped legumes have established well under the maize, and rotation trials have been established using both annual and perennial species. Results from a rotation trial established on the 06/07 legume evaluation site at Kakaniuk (Belu regency) during the 07/08 season are providing support to the idea that legumes can contribute to maize nitrogen supply. Whilst other legumes contributed sufficient nitrogen in one dry season to increase maize grain yield by around 1 t/ha, Clitoria ternatea fixed sufficient to increase grain yield by 2.6 t/ha and stover by 4.1 t DM/ha when compared to the maize control.
Seed production has been increased during the 2007/08 season with over 4.5 ha of a range of species being produced by farmers in three regencies. The aim is to develop self sufficiency in seed supply and to develop a group of farmers and extension personnel experienced in seed production. The increase in production area and the recent agreement by the extension agency DINAS to purchase and distribute seed in Belu regency are positive steps towards achieving these goals.
Preliminary results from on-station animal studies indicate that feeding 6 month old weaned Bali calves conserved annual forage legumes would result in live weight gains greater than those reported in recent dry season village studies where crop residues were fed alone. While the growth rates were not as high as for calves fed Leucaena leucocephala, they do demonstrate a role for forage legumes in the cattle production system. The conservation and utilisation of stored forage legumes for late dry season feeding to growing calves or bulls is expected to be a viable option to supplement the current feed gap. This will be tested during village feeding trials planned for the late dry season (September 2008) in which forage legumes will be fed in conjunction with low quality crop residues including corn stover.
Socioeconomic benchmarking and longitudinal evaluation of farmer and researcher attitudes to the research and proposed interventions continues. Survey of participants in a project sponsored forage workshop (Kupang, November 2007) showed strong interest from farmers in the legumes, Clitoria ternate and Lablab purpureus, and in future involvement in legume seed production. Labour availability and technical support for seed production and legume management were cited as the main constraints to future expansion. The next round of longitudinal evaluation will commence in July 2008 and will include the first attempt at recording the impact of ad-hoc extension on the wider adoption of the technologies in the West Timorese farming community.

The identification of annual and semi-perennial forage legumes adapted to the West Timor semi-arid tropical environment has provided the opportunity to increase food security of both the human population and their livestock through modification of the traditional maize based farming system. Whilst >1000mm of annual rainfall is common in West Timor the majority falls during the relatively short wet season (~4 months). This is followed by a long dry season in which food becomes scarce, which in the most extreme cases, results in starvation amongst the human population. The main factors attributing to food supply imbalance are variability in climate, farm size, labour constraints, poor agronomic practice and lack of capital to resource increased production.
Whilst inputs such as inorganic fertiliser could contribute to increased wet season crop production most farmers do not have the capacity to purchase such inputs nor the 'systems skills' with which to use them. Farmers are also keen to participate in the lucrative live cattle export market which exists with western Indonesia. This market provides them access to the cash economy, however daily animal live weight gains are generally low due to the quality and quantity of forages available for feeding, resulting in animals being slow to achieve marketable weight.
The identification of the presence of unutilised soil water at maize harvest, supplemented by late wet season rainfall, provides an opportunity to increase the productive capacity of the farming system. The introduction of forage legumes, able to utilise these resource results in an additional crop being added to the system, grown at a time of year when lands generally remain fallow. The legumes, Clitoria ternatea, Centrosema pascuorum and Lablab purpureus, identified by collaborating farmers as having appropriate traits for inclusion in their farming system, are able to be grown as either relay crops (sown into the maize sward) or in rotation with maize, contributing to food security through increased forage supply for animals and potentially, improved nitrogen (N) supply to subsequent maize crops.
Research to date shows that legume yields of 2 to 5 t/ha Dry Matter (DM) are achievable when sown at the commencement of the wet season and grown in rotation with maize. This system is appropriate in areas where land is available for legume production that is additional to that being used to produce maize in a particular season. Yields of legumes grown under relay conditions were lower that those grown in rotation (1.2 and 1.4 t/ha DM in the 07/08 season), a result of competition for water resources with the maturing maize crop. Biomass produced through relay or rotation is then available to supplement cattle forage supply. A hand operated baler has been developed to efficiently bale the harvested and dried legumes for storage and feeding during the late dry season, the time of year when locally available feed resources are scarce. A village based feeding trial conducted in Usapinonot indicated that weaned Bali calves supplemented with forage legumes, at approximately 15 g DM/kg live weight/d, throughout the dry season (April to November) grew at 0.23 kg/d compared to 0.31 kg/d for animals supplemented with an equivalent amount of Leucaena and 0.12 kg/d for animals maintained under the prevailing management and feeding practices, over the same period.
Improved maize nutrition resulting from the fixing of atmospheric N by the legumes provides farmers with the opportunity to increase the yield of their most important food security crop (ie maize) without a major financial outlay on the purchase of inorganic fertilisers. Recent research has concentrated on the quantification of this contribution and the potential to 'top up' N supply through the additional use of organic fertilisers, such as manure, or lower rates of inorganic fertiliser, the purchase of which is within the reach of some farmers. Visual observation of trials undertaken at the villages of Oebola and Usapinonot during the 2008/09 wet season showed maize crops with higher yield potential when grown after the forage legumes, although the actual impact on yield is yet to be quantified with the analysis of the season's research data. It is anticipated that the provision of these data will allow the quantification of the contribution of legumes to maize N supply and the impact of additional application of manure or Urea on yield. It is planned to develop 'rules of thumb' based on these data which will allow farmers to make their own decisions on maize nutrition based on the previous cropping history of their land, whether forage legumes formed part of that system and their attitude to the risk associated with investment in fertiliser.

The identification of annual and semi-perennial forage legumes, adapted to the Eastern Indonesian semi-arid tropical environment, has provided the opportunity to increase food security through modification of the traditional maize based farming system. Whilst >1000 mm of annual rainfall is common in West Timor the majority falls during a relatively short wet season of around 4 months duration. This is followed by a long dry season in which food security becomes a major concern to subsistence farmers. Poor agronomic practice and the inability of farmers to afford inputs such as fertiliser often results in sub-optimal yields of maize. Likewise animal ownership, seen as a means of farmer participation in the cash economy, is limited by the high cost of initial investment and the often limited availability of quality forage for year round animal feeding. Consequently the identification of a number of forage legumes, well adapted to the environment and able to be sown in relay or rotation with maize have the potential to impact on the food security of the province.
Legume evaluation has identified three forage legumes which are agronomically suited and accepted by farmers for inclusion in the existing farming system. Due to the dry finish of the 2007/08 wet season, on-farm research yields of Clitoria ternatea, Centrosema pascuorum and Lablab purpureus varied between 2 and 5 t/ha dry matter (DM) when grown in rotation with maize and 1.2 to 1.4 t/ha DM when grown in relay, with the latter yields impacted by competition for soil water from the maturing maize crop. Feeding trials undertaken in the village of Usapinonot during the 2008 dry season showed that cattle fed forage legumes as a component of their diet (at a daily rate of 15g DM/kg animal live weight over >200 days) gained weight at a rate of 250 g/day, an increase of 100 g/day compared to those fed local forages. Animals supplemented with the browse legume Leucaena leucocephala achieved daily live weight gains of 320 g.
The 2008/09 wet season provided the first opportunity to field test forage legume potential to contribute to subsequent maize production through increased nitrogen supply. In the village of Oebola maize grain yields after relay cropped Clitoria ternatea and Centrosema pascuorum increased by ~700 kg/ha (from 2.6 to 3.4 t/ha) and stover yield by 1 t/ha (from 3.4 to 4.4 t/ha), compared to a sole maize rotation. Whilst maize yields in the village of Usapinonot were low and variable, a small response in grain yield (from 600 to 800 kg/ha grain) to the relay cropping of Clitoria ternatea has had significant impact on the farming community. The yield increase, in conjunction with the farmers' experience of feeding legumes to cattle, gained through involvement in the 2008 feeding trials, is leading to systems change at the individual and community levels. A leading farmer recently intercropped Clitoria ternatea with maize over an area of 1600 m2. As well as being expected to produce significant quantities of maize, this area has supplied quality forage for animal feeding during the wet and early dry seasons with the expectation that supplies will continue until the mid-dry (August). To support the increasing cattle numbers in the village, leaders have developed the aspirational goal of developing 5 ha of forage legume area over the next 5 years. This is a direct result of the need of farmers for additional forage to enable participation in an Indonesian government initiative to increase herd numbers through support of village farmer groups.
In the village of Tobu the farmer group have developed an integrated system where cattle are fed a mix of forage legumes (intercropped with maize) and improved grasses. The manure is used to produce biogas for home use before being used to fertilise maize and vegetables. In the 2009 dry season the farmer group also harvested ~50 kg of Clitoria ternatea seed for sale to the project and to other local farmers. The system, based on the feeding of quality legumes and grasses to cattle, has been so successful during the last year that the farmer group have been able to utilise excess forage and space in their feedlot to offer an animal finishing service to their neighbours.
Whilst the original project concept was for farmers to use legumes for late dry season forage supplementation, farmers in these examples have modified use to fit local needs. The legumes are intercropped with maize and the forage material used for wet and early to mid dry season feeding, relying on browse legumes such as leucaena for later dry season feeding.
Whilst research is showing that forage legumes do have a place in the maize based farming systems of West Timor, and there are some signs of commencement of adoption, future project activity is focussing on testing the opportunities for legumes in other farming systems and agro-climatological regions of Eastern Indonesia. During the 2009/10 wet season research has commenced on the integration of forage legumes into the rice and maize based farming systems on the island of Flores. Village selection is based on identified drivers of adoption including animal ownership, a need for quality forage, low cereal crop yields and support from local research and extension agencies.

The project ASEM/2006/130 "Enhancing production and marketing of maize and soybean in north-western Cambodia and production of summer crops in north-eastern Australia" commenced in May 2008. The overarching aim of the project is to improve the functioning of the production - marketing system for maize and soybean in north-western Cambodia as a key to increasing cash income, sustainable growth and poverty reduction for smallholder farmers. The project will facilitate the sharing of knowledge and information at all stages of the value chain from farmer to end-user. This will deliver practical benefits including improved food security, increased income, and reduced vulnerability to disruptions for rural poor farmers. In north-western NSW, the aim is to address lack of adoption of conservation farming practices, increase summer crop diversity and to develop strategies for adaptation of farming systems to climate change.
Eight village clusters were established, four in the district of Samlaut and four in the municipality of Pailin. A total of nineteen trials of improved varieties, rhizobium inoculation of legumes and nitrogen nutrition of maize were successfully completed. The yields of maize, soybean, peanut and mungbean in experimental plots exceeded the predicted maximum yields for Cambodia and were more than double the average farmer yields. The project has identified 6 production technologies to help farmers increase crop yields. The technologies under study are improved varieties, rhizobium inoculation, nitrogen nutrition of maize, crop rotation, reduced tillage and integrated pest management.
Farmer workshops investigated key socio-economic issues related to adoption of the improved crop technologies. Village workshops were completed in December for 2 villages in each of the Pailin and Samlaut districts. The gross margin budgets from these workshops were presented to the project meeting in Battambang in February 2009. Gross margin budgets were completed for experiments in Samlaut and Pailin. Return on investment calculations were completed for inoculation and nitrogen fertiliser application to maize.
Based on case studies and interviews of farmers and middlemen, a value chain map was developed for maize in Pailin. Key on-ground issues were identified for each value chain participant (farmer, middleman, silo manager), followed by establishing a suitable case study for the project. A case study was set up in Pailin region based on CARE farmer clusters, supply chains to silo and Thai markets. By far the largest task in the first year was gathering information to map out the supply chains. It has involved extensive farmer and middlemen surveys and interviews as well as visits to observe the different supply chain activities.
A review of marketing arrangements in the Pailin area revealed that there is essentially a single buyer for upland crops in northwest Cambodia (i.e. CP Foods based in Thailand). The Northwest Agricultural Marketing Association (NAMA) was established as a marketing organization of upland crops and already its members account for about 20% of the crop in that region. NAMA will seek to develop alternative export markets as well as farmer hubs for inputs, outputs and communications. We developed a background paper on NAMA and held two participatory workshops with NAMA members to explore their issues and potential actions. In addition to this work with NAMA we are exploring the possibility to develop a strategic plan for developing farmer associations/cooperatives in the second year of the project. We are also continuing to work with the Ministry of Commerce to carry out research to support the development of the operations of NAMA and its initiative on export market development.
A SMS communication system (EMCS), developed by Dr Rob Fitzgerald, adopted the open source application Frontline SMS. Worked with the newly formed NAMA to develop the SMS Field Communication System to install a server in Pailin with particular focus on the provision of information (rated top priority by members) and the exchange and sharing of silo association price and market information. A server has also been installed with MJP in Battambang with particular emphasis on basic market information and health alerts.
Field crop manuals for maize and soybean have been compiled and are currently being translated into Khmer language. Weed and insect field guides have also been compiled and are being translated to Khmer language. These publications will be made available to PDA extension staff and other information providers. The GDA Directorate of Agricultural Extension will also use the publications as resources for production of farmer extension materials. We also plan to liaise with the Royal University of Agriculture and Agricultural Colleges to update curricula on upland crop production and marketing information.

ASEM/2006/130 commenced in May 2008. The overarching aim of the project is to improve the functioning of the production - marketing system for maize and soybean in north-western Cambodia as a key to increasing cash income, sustainable growth and poverty reduction for smallholder farmers. In north-western NSW, the aim is to develop strategies for adaptation of farming systems to climate variability and climate change.
Down-scaled future climate scenarios were completed for sorghum in NW NSW and APSIM simulation runs were completed for farming systems options for sorghum. Economic analysis of farmer preferences were completed and submitted for presentation/publication in the Australian Summer Grains Conference June 2010. Linear programming will be used in conjunction with @Risk to analyse the outcomes of farming systems options for adaptation to climate change.
In Cambodia, the trial and demonstration program in 2009 included improved varieties, rhizobium inoculation of legumes and nitrogen nutrition of maize. In 2009, feedback from farmers highlighted the need for trials on herbicides for weed control in maize and soybean because the cost of labour had become too great to allow for hand-weeding. The production technologies being evaluated now include: improved varieties, rhizobium inoculation, nitrogen nutrition of maize, crop rotation, reduced tillage, integrated pest management and weed management.
Farmer workshops investigated key socio-economic issues related to adoption of the improved crop technologies - the major issue in 2009 has been the increasing cost of farm labour. In June 2009 the village workshops developed partial budgets for return on investment for the application of nitrogen fertilizer to maize and inoculation of legume seeds with rhizobium. In October 2009 further partial budgets were developed for weeding of crops - hand weeding versus chemical sprays.
A review of marketing arrangements in northwest Cambodia revealed there is essentially a single buyer for upland crops in the region (CP Foods, Thailand). Thus, Professor Spriggs provided assistance to establish the Northwest Agricultural Marketing Association (NAMA) to improve the marketing arrangements in the region. NAMA is anchored by three major silos (Pailin, Kamrieng and Malai) which are important potential crop marketing hubs for inputs, outputs and communications in the region. An action plan was developed with NAMA with two components: (1) to help NAMA with export market development and (2) to help NAMA develop its vision for the future.
A SMS service was developed based on a simple, robust framework for contact dissemination which includes the potential for peer-submitted and peer-reviewed content. A prototype system was completed in January 2010, using a more modular architecture and popular open-source software solutions. Field research in February 2010 resulted in a revised focus for the system towards mapping and disseminating information about market players relevant to users. The FrontlineSMS server is being hosted at the Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP).
Value chain mapping has been completed including a grain trader survey in 2009.These data will add significantly to the knowledge about the farmer/grain trader relationships. A social network analysis (SNA ) was carried out to identify the key actors in the farmer/grain trader network. The main immediate opportunities to address constraints in the value chain include the creation of a farmer's association, a grain trader association and the investigation of grain storage facilities at the farmer and trader level. A farmer association has been established by the CARE Pailin team in cooperation with the local Provincial Department of Agriculture (PDA). Preliminary work has also been done to establish a grain trader (middleman) association. Planning has been in cooperation with the Pailin Department of Commerce (DoC).
The Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, North-East Thailand was identified as a source of liquid rhizobium and supplies were obtained to provide farmers with inoculants to try out in their own fields in EWS 2010. A TOT activity was developed to assist with the roll out of the technology.
An illustrated children's book "Jorani and the Green Vegetable Bugs" was published in Khmer language to teach children about integrated pest management (IPM) in upland crops. A pilot activity involved introducing the concept to school directors and teachers; development of a teacher guide; implementation in schools; celebration and public launch. The pilot was a success and further units are being considered for the Life Skills program. The concept will be presented to the MoEYS for endorsement and roll-out to primary schools in Cambodia. Negotiations are now underway to publish a Lao version of the book in collaboration with the Lao/Japanese NGO "Action with Lao Children."

The project is progressing well and is ahead of its proposed schedule. Activities in the first year focused on establishing teams and methodologies, selecting and working with communities in the study region, and creating opportunities for engagement with key farming and institutional stakeholders.

The project employed 12 On Ground Team (OGT) members and one Project Officer in November 07 after an intensive recruitment process in August and September. The team is an impressive group of recent graduates and recruits with experience in smallholder farming systems and comprises skills in socio-economics, animal management, forage monitoring and smallholder farming, and all have ability in Sasak language.

The OGT has received theoretical and practical training from Lombok and Australian specialists on an array of topics such as forage assessment, management and monitoring, nursery establishment and maintenance, animal nutrition and health, farming systems and modelling, data management, socio-economics and extension practices. Most OGT training is also attended by local agricultural extension staff from the project's study villages.

Two students also joined the project in 2008. One is undertaking a Masters degree in forage agronomy and diversity. The other is completing a PhD on the impacts of improving the availability of introduced and local forages on cattle productivity under smallholder conditions, covering aspects of forage composition and quality, preferential feeding and the impact of forage legumes on livestock performance and farmer adoption.

To ensure effective project coordination, a multi-level team structure was established. The Project Management Team is responsible for operations & coordination; the Project Specialist Team is responsible for technical expertise & training and the On Ground Team is responsible for implementation & extension. A start-up meeting attended by all teams was held in Lombok in November 07.

In addition, an Advisory Committee was established in November 07, comprising representatives from the local government, BPTP, University of Mataram, Dinas Peternakan, NGOs, CSIRO and the farming community. The Committee's role is to provide overall guidance and advice on the direction and relevance of the project.

Despite a late start to the project, 12 kandang communities were selected by January 08, in addition to two demonstration or 'training' kandangs. Criteria for selection included cattle population, ownership status and security of the kandang, willingness of the community to participate and scope for adopting improved technology, particularly in terms of labour and land. The OGT completed the compilation of socio-economic and cultural data from the kandang communities in February 08, after developing and trialling a benchmarking survey.

Ten new kandangs have now been selected for the second year of the project and a similar benchmarking process is underway.

The project team is using a three-step approach to adoption of livestock technologies, based on farmer perceptions of need and potential for improvement. Step one is improvement of existing kandang facilities and provision of a communal bull (thereby ensuring controlled mating). Community negotiation about renovations was facilitated by the OGT and other team members and renovations were completed by the community in May 08. Renovations commonly include construction of bull and calf pens and improved kandang drainage. Bulls will be purchased and introduced to the kandangs in early June08.

The second step is improving the forage resource and to this end, small demonstration nurseries have been established by OGT and farmers at each participating kandang to demonstrate new forages, management techniques and aspects of animal nutrition. The third step is the introduction of other breeding management strategies shown to be successful in previous ACIAR projects (eg early weaning and preferential feeding of calves).

Communication and engagement activities in year one include: hosting international visitors interested in the design and progress of the project; featuring in print media articles in key regional newspapers; producing the first edition of a project newsletter which was distributed to relevant institutions in Lombok, South Sulawesi and Australia; organising or facilitating participating farmer visits to demonstration sites, the university forage nursery and other participating kandangs; and engaging regularly with key regional stakeholders, including the Bupati of Central Lombok, Dinas Peternakan at regional and local levels, Bappeda in Central Lombok and heads of participating and interested villages in the study region.

Key activities in the second year of the project were community and institutional engagement and implementing improved infrastructure and breeding and feeding practices.

The final 12 kandangs have been selected for the project, bringing the total for the project to 36. Socio-economic and biophysical benchmarking has now been completed for all project kandangs.

As in year one, the key components of livestock improvement promoted by the project team were breeding management, improvement of existing kandang facilities and improving forage resources.

Breeding management activities focused on controlled mating through provision of a bull. All project bulls were purchased by farmers and On-Ground Team (OGTs) by mid-July and sold by end of December. In each kandang a bull keeper was appointed from the group to manage mating and feeding. Over 1000 cows were mated by project bulls between June and December - 58% from project kandangs (91% of the total number of mature females) and 42% from cows in neighbouring farms.

Infrastructure improvements were implemented by the farmer group after discussions facilitated by the OGTs. Most groups chose to construct a bull pen and improve kandang drainage. The small injection of project funds was a catalyst, and many groups have now contributed significantly more than the project both as in kind and financially and have continued with improvement activities.

Limited availability of land remains a challenge for establishing adequate forage resources, but there have been encouraging signs this year. Small plots have been established at each study kandang which are used to demonstrate new forages, management techniques and aspects of animal nutrition. Strategies for village-level forage development are being discussed. Requests for additional seedlings and cuttings are prioritised according to how much land individuals are prepared to devote to forage production.

Training for the OGTs is ongoing and has focussed on implementation of project activities, such as forage development, kandang sanitation, data collection, nutritional requirements and detection of oestrus. Farmer training from an expert in Bogor was facilitated on the use of manure as an organic fertiliser.

The two project students are progressing well. The Masters student (forage agronomy, diversity and organic practices) has completed lab analyses and is currently collating literature in preparation for writing his thesis. The PhD student (impacts of improving the availability of introduced and local forages on cattle productivity) began data collection in January 09, including botanical composition of offered feed, adoption of new forages and baseline information on pregnant cows and weaned calves to be supplemented with improved forages, particularly tree legumes.

Following a workshop in Sydney in December, a framework and sampling strategy has been finalised to investigate aspects of adoption of the project practices. Semi-structured interviews will be used to understand household decision-making processes for adoption and social network analysis will be used to examine which people and institutions are influential in information transfer and exchange. Training in these techniques began in May and data collection will begin in June.

The Advisory Committee continues to be an important mechanism for discussion of the direction and relevance of the project to regional initiatives and targets. The Committee met three times during the reporting period, with conversation focused in capacity building and replication of the project model to other groups and regions, future roles for OGTs, the importance of community participation and empowerment and the need for an exit strategy using the project success as a base for sustainability.

In December 08, NTB was declared by the provincial government to be 'the land of a million cattle' (LMC) and a provincial task force was established to plan for this vision. A significant indication of the project's influence is that the Project Leader and Project Coordinator were both invited to join the small task force and are active in strategic planning and budgeting.

Other examples of project influence include:
In 2009 Dinas NTB has budgeted to buy 113 bulls (for all districts) and Dinas Central Lombok is planning to buy 40 bulls with their own budget. This is part of the local government's effort to adopt project recommendations.
Training in site selection was provided by the project team to central Lombok Dinas and extension officers, who were selecting 40 kandangs at the same time as the project (April 09).

Activities in the first year of the project were focused on establishing teams and facilities, selecting and engaging with communities in the three study regions, developing protocols and beginning the 'best bet' process with communities and farmers.

The project employed 14 On Ground Team (OGT) members and one Project Officer in November 07 after an intensive recruitment process in August and September. The team is an impressive group of recent graduates and recruits with experience in smallholder farming systems and comprises skills in socio-economics, animal management, forage monitoring and smallholder farming - all with abilities in regional languages.

The OGTs have received theoretical and practical training from SulSel and Australian specialists on an array of topics including forage analysis and monitoring, nursery establishment and maintenance, animal nutrition and health, farming systems and modelling and engagement and social survey techniques. Most OGT training is also attended by local agricultural extension staff from the project's study villages.

To ensure effective project coordination, a multi-level team structure was established. The Project Management Team is responsible for operations & coordination; the Project Specialist Team is responsible for technical expertise & training and the On Ground Team is responsible for implementation & extension. A start-up meeting attended by all teams was held in Makassar in November 07.

In addition, a Steering Committee was established in November 07, comprising representatives from Dinas Peternakan at provincial and regency levels, BPTP, UNHAS and CSIRO. The Committee's role is to provide overall guidance and advice on the direction and relevance of the project.

Farming systems data were collected from all villages in the three study regencies - Barru, Gowa and Bone. Criteria for village selection included size and relative importance of cattle population, access to study sites, willingness of the community to participate and scope and willingness for adopting improved technology and recommendation of regional and local agricultural extension officers. Twelve study villages were selected in January. Village benchmarking (social, economic and cultural information) and mapping is due to be completed in May.

In January, OGTs were placed in Barru, Gowa and Bone regencies. Introductions were made to local farmers, heads of village and local government officials. Accommodation, office space and facilities were sought in each region.

This project builds on cattle and forage improvement tools and technologies developed by precursor ACIAR projects, and successfully tested and implemented by ACIAR project AS2/2004/005 (Improving smallholder crop-livestock systems in eastern Indonesia). In essence, the improvement technologies (Best Bets) are:
Making better use of existing forages in a farming system
Introducing new forages
Seasonal (controlled) mating to match feed supply and labour needs
Preferentially feeding particular animals
Feed budgeting and planning to meet forecast feed demands

Best Bet activities in the first field season will be predominantly focused on managing forage resources. Other options will be negotiated incrementally.

Due to the late start of the project, the project team was not able to launch the Best Bet process (village workshop to identify constraints and options for increased cattle production; negotiation of Best Bet options with individual farmers; design and establishment of on-farm trials and monitoring) during the main 07-08 wet season.

However, the project team is taking advantage of Bone's bimodal wet season ('small wet' from December to March and 'big wet' from April to July) to launch Best Bet activities in that regency's four study villages.

A priority for the project team over the next six months is to finalise the model, methods and monitoring for scale-out activities for years 2 and 3. These will be largely be informed by the results and findings of the AS2/2004/005 project. Activities to date supporting scale-out include farmer-to-farmer visits, extension worker joint training, village and farmer group meetings and use of farmer and OGT diaries.

Communication and engagement activities in year one include: organising or facilitating participating farmer visits to established Best Bet farmers, producing the first edition of a project newsletter which will be distributed to relevant institutions in South Sulawesi, Lombok and Australia; and engaging proactively with key regional stakeholders, including Dinas Peternakan at provincial and local levels, and heads of participating and interested villages in the study region.

Activities in the second year of the project focused on consolidating best-bet activities in our 12 study villages across three regencies, establishing a framework for social research, supporting and tracking scale-out and capacity building.

The best-bet process was completed in Barru and Gowa during the 08-09 wet season. This process incorporates a workshop in each study village to identify constraints and options for increased cattle production; negotiation of tailored best-bet options with individual farmers; design and establishment of on-farm trials. Village nurseries, cattle and forage monitoring and dynamic calendars of activities are now in place for each farming unit.

Because of Bone's bimodal wet season ('small wet' from December to March and 'big wet' from April to July), best-bet activities in that regency's four study villages are well advanced. The project team reported that forage introduction (generally the 'entry point' of best-bet activities) by nearly all farmers was exceptionally good. Some farmers now have more feed than they can use and are actively giving planting material to other farmers to create their own forage supply, supporting significant scale-out. In addition, many farmers are already adopting better feeding practices and some with suitable aged calves commencing early weaning and preferential feeding.

A new group of researchers has now taken responsibility for the social research component of the project. Following a workshop in Sydney in December, a framework and sampling strategy has been finalised to investigate aspects of adoption and impact of the best-bet practices. Semi-structured interviews will be used to understand household decision-making processes for adoption and social network analysis will be used to examine what people and institutions are influential in information transfer and exchange. Training in these techniques was given in May and data collection will begin in June.

Impact work will centre on the assumption that increases in productivity lead to increases in income which lead to enhanced livelihoods. This will bring together both biophysical and social indicators and will focus on farmers (best-bet and scale-out) associated with the precursor project. Relevant training will be given in August.

With several new members, the Project Steering Committee continues to provide guidance and advice on the direction and relevance of the project. The Committee met three times during the reporting period, both in Makassar and respective regencies. Committee discussion has been about synergies and communication between institutions, the need for collaboration between OGTs and PPLs, the importance of participation and forming and working with farmer groups.

The project team identified farmer-to-farmer interactions as having the greatest potential to enhance scale-out of on-ground practices. Project activities supporting these interactions include farmer visits to established best-bet farmers in other regencies; a farmer field day in the study sub-district in Bone; supporting farmer 'champions' in each district; and maintaining and distributing a good source of forage material. Each best-bet farmer and OGT is collecting basic information about potential scale-out farmers. This information will be used in a mapping exercise and as part of the social research work.

The greatest potential for long-term support for the project principles and approach (institutional scale-out and capacity) was agreed to be fostering closer links with PPLs and farmer groups, in existing and neighbouring villages. With agreement from local, regency and provincial Dinas managers, a pilot training program for PPLs and PPKs has been developed for the Libureng sub-district of the Bone regency, to begin in June. Initial training will focus on nursery establishment and forage management and use, to take advantage of the extended wet season. It is envisaged that OGTs will subsequently act as facilitators and advisors for the PPLs in setting up village nurseries and managing both forage and cattle. In return the project team is negotiating formal and informal training for OGTs in farmer group engagement and negotiation.

Communication and engagement activities in year two include: presentations by project members at a number of international conferences; media coverage from Bajar TV (Makassar) of the Bone farmer field day; hosting two international journalists - one freelance writer and one from the Australian Financial Review; production of two editions of the project newsletter (distributed to relevant institutions in South Sulawesi, Lombok and Australia); regular engagement with government officials and heads of participating and interested villages in the study region.

Excellent wheat yields achieved in successful project-sponsored farmer trials during the 2007/08 season, combined with current high demand and record prices for wheat grain in local markets, have created exactly the right ingredients for achieving the project objective of expanding rabi cropping in southern Bangladesh. With the project providing targeted technical and resource support to motivated local change agents (Proshika, WRC and DAE staff) at this time of high interest in wheat by farmers, the prospect of significant impacts from continued project investment is enticingly high. Confidence in benchmarking, recording and quantifying such impact is greatly enhanced by the associated efforts in livelihood analysis supported by the project, All in all, this project is well on track to surpassing its initial expectations.
Farmers averaged nearly 4 t/ha in the large field-scale trials at Barisal and over 3.5 t/ha on Bhola island. In Noakhali, farmer yields averaged 2.3 t/ha across sites impacted by varying levels of salinity. Preliminary analysis indicates agronomic practices and released varieties, as recommended by WRC, are appropriate but that very late planting (late December) may reduce yields. In the more saline areas of Noakhali, varietal screening trials identified germplasm with consistent yield prospects for this region. While these results were influenced by the soft season finish of relatively cool temperatures and helpful rainfall during the 2007/08 season, this is the fourth consecutive season of acceptable wheat yields and so it is reasonable to reflect some confidence in achieving consistent crop yields in the regions of southern Bangladesh.
Detailed interpretation of the 2007/08 experimental results is yet to be completed and is dependent on soil chemical and physical data which are currently being analysed. Once available, these trial data will be used to test the APSIM model.
A remaining challenge to the project is to identify and spatially map land types with (i) current shallow tube well irrigation infrastructure, (ii) no salinity and surface storages of monsoon rainwater suitable for supplementary irrigation, (iii) near-surface water tables or high soil water holding capacity sufficient for dryland cropping or (iv) poor quality ground water but high quality surface water sufficient for irrigations. Some progress has been made in using satellite imagery to estimate surface water storage. Preliminary analyses, for example, indicate that for a 300ha region centred on Hazirhat, in the Noakhali region, there are 9.7ha of water bodies identifiable. This equates to 194ML (assuming 2m depth of water bodies) which is sufficient to potentially irrigate 100ha of wheat, assuming half this water is accessible for irrigation. Concentrated effort to progress such spatial mapping will occur during June 2008 when Perry Poulton visits Bangladesh with this specific purpose in mind.
Clearly impressive in the project is the collaboration evident between WRC and Proshika, such that it was not possible for Australian collaborators to discern which individuals were employed by each organisation. The project employed two scientific officers, one in each organisation, in each region (Barisal, Bhola, Noakhali) and they appeared to really work as a team. This was also reflected in the attitude and voiced views of the respective organisational leaders. The results were apparent in very well run on-farm trials and field days. While the Australian collaborators may be vocal in designing the field program, its implementation is largely up to the local team and they have exceeded expectations.
Given the excellent results to date, the project is well on course to ramp up extension and training activities for farmers in the upcoming 2008/09 season.

High world wheat prices and the need to import more than three quarters of domestic demand has renewed interest amongst Bangladeshi farmers in wheat as a Rabi-season (dry season) cropping option. Over the past 10-20 years wheat production had lost favour amongst farmers due to reductions in yield resulting from increased disease pressures and the relative attractiveness of alternative Rabi-season crops, particularly Boro rice and vegetables. Historically wheat has been grown in the north of the country, however this project focuses on the south, a region which had been considered unsuitable for wheat production, until FAO funded research (2003/05) achieved yields in excess of 2.5 t/ha with new, disease resistant varieties grown using appropriate agronomic practice. Current research builds on this work exploring options to improve management of resources including irrigation and nutrients and to adapt farm management options to deal with specific local constraints. There has also been a broadening of research focus to include other Rabi-season cropping options, particularly pulses such as mungbean, and an increased emphasis on the extension of research findings to the southern Bangladesh farming community. Wheat yields of 3 to 4.5 t/ha have been consistently achieved over the 4 years of research although higher temperatures during grain fill and a lack of rainfall during the 2008/09 season reduced yields by around 20% across the south. This is however, a very positive outcome considering that crops were sown in late December, 1 month later than traditionally considered optimal, due to the late harvest of T. Aman rice.
The increased availability of short season (60-100 days), well adapted wheat varieties bred by the Bangladesh Wheat Research Centre (WRC), and mungbean varieties which mature in 60 days, have contributed significantly to southern farming systems, providing farmers with increased choice in Rabi-season cropping. Wheat research under the project is now focussed on manipulation of variables including time of sowing, crop nutrition and irrigation to optimise yield and resource use. Trials undertaken during 2007/08 indicated that one irrigation at 20 days after sowing (DAS) was the most efficient use of limited water resources, increasing wheat yield by 0.7 t/ha compared to three irrigations (with 100 kg/ha of nitrogen (N) applied). Whilst research to explain this result is continuing it is thought that the response relates to increased mobilisation of applied N and associated improved development of adventitious roots and tillers. N use efficiency also improved with the use of one irrigation with a linear response to applied rates from 0 to 100 kg N/ha. This compared to three irrigations where response plateaued at 66 kg/ha and dryland which plateaued at 33 kg/ha. Recommendations for wheat production in southern Bangladesh have been changed in light of these findings and now differ from those in the north where at least 3 irrigations are required for successful wheat production. This begs the question-where is the crop sourcing the water necessary to support the levels of production being achieved in the south?
Analysis of records of ground water level at key locations across the south suggest an under-utilised resource that, because the water table is high, has the potential to contribute significantly to wheat production through capillary rise. This effect is minimal further north in Bangladesh as the water table is much deeper. Modelling of wheat production at Bhola suggests that the mean contribution of the shallow water table to transpired crop water use is 62mm (SD=18.8mm) under irrigation and 79mm (SD=18.9mm) under dryland. This equates to a difference in mean simulated grain yield of 1.1 t/ha (SD=0.62 t/ha) and 1.4 t/ha (SD=0.38 t/ha) respectively. The importance of growing crops which are better able to utilise scarce water resources has not been lost on the farmers of Noakhali and Comilla districts who were forced to reduce Boro rice plantings during the recent season, or had crops die prematurely due to water shortages. Rice has a demand for at least 15 irrigations per season compared to wheat's 1 making it look increasingly attractive in a water constrained environment.
On-farm demonstration sites, established by the project, which double as seed multiplication sites (SMT) for the new elite varieties are critical to the expansion of Rabi-season cropping. Collaborating farmers are supported by 16 regional research officers employed by the WRC and the NGO, Proshika. In 2007/08 45 sites were established in three regions with each farmer provided with seed, fertiliser and technical support to grow wheat and mungbeans. Farmers were trained to store their seed and undertook to sell at least some to neighbours for sowing in the following season. This program was expanded to 87 sites across six regions in 2008/09 and has been successful in showcasing options for Rabi-season cropping, developing expertise within the farming community and providing seed for future sowing. The success of this activity is exemplified in the village of Babuganj where Nasima Begum grew 800 m of wheat in 2007/08 (3.7 t/ha yield) and then sowed the land to mungbeans (1 t/ha yield). In 2008/09 she expanded production to 1000 m of wheat (3.5 t/ha yield) and 2400 m of mungbean and profited from the sale of wheat seed to 8 neighbours and mungbean to 5. Nasima is now recognised as the local farmer expert on the production of wheat and mungbeans and is sought out by her neighbours for advice.
Quantification of available fallow land for Rabi-season cropping continues to be an important objective of the project. Constraints on accessing regional data for real-time in-season land use assessment has lead to the trialling of satellite imagery as a potential data source. Analysis of the Noakhali region for the 2006/07, 2007/08 cropping seasons demonstrate the potential to classify land use at small scale paddock level (< 0.2ha). Imaging analysis is used to identify and then quantify land remaining fallow with estimates of 10 to 14% of the land in the study areas (293 ha & 1592 ha) remaining fallow during January to March 2007. Differences between the generated data and estimates by the Dept of Ag Extension (6% fallow in 2005) made it necessary to ground truth these regions in 2009 to enable improved differentiation between fallows and similar land uses not well defined using satellite imagery. It is expected that this work will result in more accurate assessment of land use and determination of actual land available for expanded Rabi-season cropping.

From 1999 to 2003, ACIAR funded project AS2/96/149 which researched and promoted the use of grain and forage legumes in crop and livestock systems in Zimbabwe and Limpopo province, South Africa. Notable project successes were, to a large extent, the result of investments in capacity building of the project team (students, extension staff, researchers) and well-targeted interventions. A new project was initiated in 2002 following on from some of the successes from AS2/196/149, however it was recommended that a new project should undertake an integrated RD&E program to help the 'emerging farmer' sector in Limpopo, South Africa become more profitable and sustainable. This emerging farmer sector had been broadly defined as previously disadvantaged farmers who are attempting to make a transition to commercially based agriculture. During the planning stages, it was concluded that land reform schemes underway in RSA would result in the creation of a new sector of emerging farmers. Land reform has proceeded slowly however, so the major sector of previously disadvantaged farmers in Limpopo remains as the non-commercial subsistence sector. While this project has successfully engaged some land reform farmers, mainly in the rangeland (veld) areas, tenure of most of the livestock farmers remains uncertain. Amongst the cropping based farmer groups, all are smallholder farmers with varying capacities and desires to make a transition from subsistence based farming to more commercially orientated farming systems.

Activities in the new project, led by Dr Anthony Whitbread of CSIRO and Mr Jeffery Mkhari of the Limpopo Department of Agriculture, began in March 2005 with a visit by the Australian project team and a startup workshop with the project partners (The Limpopo Department of Agriculture, The University of Venda for Science and Technology, The University of Limpopo, Progress Milling, the provinces largest grain milling company and a private consulting company AGES). The project, essentially divided into work on veld based livestock production systems and work on cropping based systems, has undertaken RD&E activities within 7 communities in 4 districts of Limpopo Province, engaging at least 250 farmers and their families in Year 1. To date there have been no mixed crop-livestock systems identified where synergistic opportunities exist for legume forage interventions.

The CSE Rangelands and Savannas team (Neil MacLeod and Cam Mcdonald) with assistance from the Limpopo Department of Agriculture (LDA) veld team (led by Frits van Oudtshoorn) have undertaken activities with 3 farmer livestock groups based at Steilloop (Rebone) in Waterburg District, Nwanedi in the Vhembe District and Maboi in the Capricorn district. During the initial site inspections, it became apparent that insufficient property size and forage limitations due to veld degradation, in particular bush thickening and loss of perennial grasses, were the most critical management problems facing the emerging farmer groups. The need for legume fodder banks, which had been advanced as the key project technology was rated to be of a lesser priority. The main focus of field and communication activities has been strategically switched to veld monitoring, exclosures to identify relictual site potential and to test the feasibility of spelling, shrub control and other reclamation strategies to reclaim lost productivity of the pasture resources. Without a viable pasture base, any objectives to promote advanced animal nutrition and marketing of better classes of stock are of doubtful viability. In line with these conclusions, there have been trial sites (exclosure plots and pasture plantings) established on several farms and a commitment to similar at the remaining group sites; Resource assessments were made in April 2006 at case study farms at Steilloop, Nwanedi and Maboi. Discussions have been held with farmers to aid in the planning of the first round of group training to be held at Steilloop in July-August 2006. Workshops are also to be planned for the other sites, for late 2006 and early 2007.

The crop based work has been undertaken by Dr Kingsley Ayisi of AGES and teams from the University of Limpopo led by Dr Victoria Ayodele, and the University of Venda led by Dr Odhiambo with support from the local departmental extension officers. All the farmers engaged to date are smallholders and not land reform recipients. An extensive program of applied field research activities, based around the themes of improving soil fertility, agronomic management and the introduction of cash cropping, have been undertaken in four communities: 23 farmers from Dzwerani village, Vhembe district; 8 farmer associations at Perkesbult/Bloodriver in Capricorn district (in association with the ICRISAT-Dimes SMCN/2000/173 project): About 25 farmers from Mafarana and Gabaza villages, Mopani district; 69 farmers from Kulani and Sismukani near Thulamahashe town in Bohlabela District. The activities undertaken include demonstrations, researcher managed trials, farmer experiments, farmer discussion based workshops, fields days and farm walks. At the Mopani and Vhembe sites, MSC students have established on-farm field trials to collect some key data sets for use in their thesis and modelling validations. Benchmarking data collected at all sites indicate a large proportion of farmers > 60 years old, poor knowledge about basic agronomy, dissatisfaction with low and unreliable crop production, constrained resources available for inputs and a desire to produce enough produce in excess of home consumption for sale.

In Australia, an on-farm and on-station research program has been established in the Border Rivers and Maranoa-Balonne regions of southeast Queensland to demonstrate and undertake further research on mixed pasture-crop systems. Sites across both catchments have been sown to a range of large scale demonstrations of new legume pasture spp and annual fodder systems and more detailed small plot research sites. Field days and farm walks have created interest in the opportunities for improving production from pasture phases in farming communities where there are economic, social and environmental drivers to reduce the area used for crop production..

The main aim of this project is to improve the sustainability of emerging farmers who operate in crop or livestock farming systems in the Limpopo Province, South Africa and to support two local Universities and the Limpopo Department of Agriculture in conducting participative research and extension. The emerging farmer sector is made up of new farmers created by the land reform programs or existing previously disadvantaged farmers who are attempting to make a transition to commercially based agriculture. Emerging farmers created from the land reform schemes are essentially restricted to those undertaking livestock activities in the low rainfall rangeland (veld) areas, whereas crop based emerging farmers are predominantly pre-existing smallholder farmers in the former homelands. While this project has successfully engaged some land reform farmers, mainly in the rangeland (veld) areas, tenure of most of the livestock farmers remains uncertain and is considered to be a major impediment to success of these farmers. Amongst the cropping based farmer groups, all are smallholder farmers with varying capacities and desires to make a transition from subsistence based farming to more commercially orientated farming systems.

The project is led by Dr Anthony Whitbread of CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems and Mr Jeffery Mkhari of the Limpopo Department of Agriculture. It started in March 2005 with a visit by the Australian project team and a startup workshop with the project partners (The Limpopo Department of Agriculture, The University of Venda for Science and Technology, The University of Limpopo, Progress Milling, the provinces largest grain milling company and a private consulting company AGES). The project, divided into work on veld based livestock production systems and work on cropping based systems, has undertaken RD&E activities within 7 communities in 4 districts of Limpopo Province, engaging at least 250 farmers and their families. To date there have been no mixed crop-livestock systems identified where synergistic opportunities exist for legume forage interventions. There is, however, the potential for these systems to develop in many of the smallholder cropping areas.

The CSE Rangelands and Savannas team (Neil MacLeod and Cam Mcdonald) with assistance from the Limpopo Department of Agriculture (LDA) veld team (led by Frits van Oudtshoorn) have undertaken activities with 3 farmer livestock groups based at Steilloop (Rebone) in Waterburg District, Nwanedi in the Vhembe District and Maboi in the Capricorn district. As reported in the 2006/07 annual report, uncertain land tenure, insufficient property size and forage limitations due to veld degradation, in particular bush thickening and loss of perennial grasses, were the most critical management problems facing the emerging farmer groups. The need for legume fodder banks, which had been advanced as the key project technology was rated to be of a lesser priority. The main focus of field and communication activities was therefore strategically switched to veld monitoring, exclosures to identify relictual site potential and to test the feasibility of spelling, shrub control and other reclamation strategies to reclaim lost productivity of the pasture resources. In line with these conclusions, there has been trial sites (exclosure plots and pasture plantings) established on farms at all sites.

The crop based work has been undertaken by Dr Kingsley Ayisi of AGES and teams from the University of Limpopo led by Professors Ayodele and Mariga, and the University of Venda led by Dr Odhiambo. Local departmental extension officer support is considered an essential component of the program and has been sought at all sites with varying degrees of success. All the farmers engaged to date are smallholders and not land reform recipients. An extensive program of applied field research activities, based around the themes of improving soil fertility, agronomic management and the introduction of cash cropping, have been undertaken in four communities: 25 farmers from Dzwerani village, Vhembe district; 8 farmer associations at Perkesbult/Bloodriver in Capricorn district (building on the associations of the ICRISAT-Dimes SMCN/2000/173 project): About 25 farmers from Mafarana and Gabaza villages, Mopani district; >100 farmers from Kulani and Sismukani near Thulamahashe town in Bohlabela District. The activities undertaken include demonstrations, researcher managed trials, farmer experiments, farmer discussion based workshops, fields days and farm walks. At the Mopani and Vhembe sites, MSC students have continued field trials to collect some key data sets for use in their projects and modelling validations. In the past 12 months, Guar bean has also been introduced as a potential industrial cash crop and seed multiplication, on-farm experiments, harvesting and processing and market development is underway led by Jeff Mkhari and also a new MSC student Mrs Ruth Mkhari. For the remainder of the projects life key field activities will continue but a greater emphasis will be on the development of extension material and the communication of this material in an effort to improve the livelihoods of many of the smallholder cropping farmers involved.

In Australia, on-farm and on-station activities were established in the Border Rivers and Maranoa-Balonne regions of southeast Queensland to demonstrate and undertake further research on mixed livestock-crop systems. Sites across both catchments have been sown to a range of large scale demonstrations of new legume pasture species and annual fodder systems and more detailed small plot research sites. Field days and farm walks have created interest in the opportunities for improving production from pasture phases in farming communities where there are economic, social and environmental drivers to reduce the area used for crop production. For the last 2 years of the project, the Australian component will be continued under other funding arrangements, and the focus of this ACIAR project will be generating communication and extension materials for South Africa and creating as many opportunities as possible for significant farmer adoption and commercialisation.

The aim of this project is to improve the sustainability of emerging farmers who operate in crop or livestock farming systems in the Limpopo Province, South Africa and to support local researchers and extension staff to develop systems based participative research and extension programs. The emerging farmer sector is made up of new farmers created by government land reform programs or existing smallholder subsistence farmers who are attempting to make a transition to commercially based agriculture. Emerging farmers created from the land reform schemes are largely restricted to those undertaking livestock activities in the low rainfall veld (rangeland) areas, whereas crop based emerging farmers are predominantly pre-existing smallholder farmers in the former homelands. While this project has successfully engaged some land reform farmers, mainly livestock farmers, the land tenure of many remains uncertain and is considered to be a major impediment to their success. Amongst the cropping based farmer groups, all are smallholder farmers with varying capacities and desires to make the transition from subsistence based farming to more commercially orientated farming systems.
Now in its 4th year, the emerging farmers project is led by Dr Anthony Whitbread of CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems with local South African partners Mr Jeffery Mkhari (Limpopo Department of Agriculture) Dr Jude Odhiambo (University of Venda for Science and Technology) and Prof. Victoria Ayodele (University of Limpopo). Dr Kingsley Ayisi, a private consultant based in Limpopo has provided excellent support and service to the project as has Mr Frits van Oudtshoorn, formerly an LDA officer and now a private consultant. Dr Bruce Pengelly gives excellent support to the project in his role as an advisor and providing training.
The livestock and veld management focussed work is led by Mr Cam McDonald and Mr Neil MacLeod (CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems) with assistance from LDA animal and pasture extension staff. Field research and training activities have been undertaken with three farmer livestock groups based at Steilloop in Waterburg District, Nwanedi in the Vhembe District and Maboi in the Capricorn district, and in the last year an additional group of farmers at Mannamead in the Capricorn district. Uncertain land tenure, insufficient property size and forage limitations due to veld degradation, in particular bush thickening and loss of perennial grasses, are critical management problems facing these emerging farmers. The program has included veld monitoring, exclosures to identify relictual site potential and to test the feasibility of spelling, shrub control and other reclamation strategies to reclaim lost productivity of the pasture resources and training. A key focus has been the delivery to farmers (100+) and extension staff (20+) multi-day training courses and follow-up workshops. The development of a brochure, "Veld Management - the Basics" has summarised key information from these interactions and is being widely distributed. This team has engaged the South African pasture research community in discussions around how to intervene effectively in emerging farmer communities.
The crop based work has engaged smallholder farmers, not land reform recipients and established an extensive program of applied field research activities based around the themes of improving soil fertility, agronomic management and the introduction of cash cropping. These have been undertaken with focal groups of farmers in five communities: 25 farmers from Dzwerani village, Vhembe district; 8 farmer associations at Perkesbult/Bloodriver in Capricorn district (building on the associations of the ICRISAT-Dimes SMCN/2000/173 project): 50 farmers from Mafarana and Gabaza villages, Mopani district; 40 farmers from Kulani and Sismukani in Bohlabela District. The activities include demonstrations, researcher/student trials, farmer experiments, farmer discussion based workshops, fields days and farm walks. At the Bohlobela community, resource constrained smallholder farmers have shown that they can adopt improved agronomic practices and increase cultivation and production of cash crops for sale. A wonderful and significant outcome that we hope to build on in other communities. The guar bean activities started in 2006/07 as a potential industrial cash crop industry has continued with seed multiplication, variety evaluations, harvesting, processing and market development. There is much enthusiasm from government and the mining industry for this to continue and extension material has been developed. For the remainder of the project, key field activities will continue but with a greater emphasis on the development of extension material and the communication of this material. Local departmental extension officer support is considered an essential component of the program and has been sought at all sites with varying degrees of success - this issue remains a significant impediment to progress. There have been significant positive changes in the capacity of local researchers to undertake relevant research and the project to date has enabled 2 female students complete MSc level studies and 4 other individuals obtain honours level dissertations. Two of these students have continued onto MSc level work with the project.
South Africa and southern Africa more broadly, needs more than ever practical systems based RD&E to assist its governmental services, municipalities and NGO's tackle the multitude of problems facing large rural populations.

The project commenced in 2005 with the aim of improving the sustainability of emerging farmers who operate in crop or livestock farming systems in the Limpopo Province, South Africa, and to support local researchers and extension staff to develop systems based participatory research and extension programs. The `emerging farmer' sector is comprised of new farm enterprises created by government land reform programs and/or existing smallholder subsistence farmers who are striving to make the difficult transition to commercially based agriculture. The component created under land reform schemes is largely restricted to undertaking livestock activities in the low rainfall veld (rangeland) areas, whereas the crop-based component largely comprises pre-existing smallholder farmers located in the former homelands. This sector was seen to have more scope in terms of motivation and access to resources for making a successful transition, a priority under the national Black Economic Empowerment program (BEE), than the smallholder and near-urban subsistence sector that has been the focus of many previous unsuccessful development projects.
A project extension supported by ACIAR now allows the project to continue until 31 December 2009. It is led by Dr Anthony Whitbread of CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems with local South African partners Mr Jeffery Mkhari (Limpopo Department of Agriculture), Prof. Jude Odhiambo (University of Venda for Science and Technology) and Prof. Victoria Ayodele (University of Limpopo). Dr Kingsley Ayisi, a private consultant based in Limpopo Province, has been engaged to service our activities with the Bohlobela communities as part of the smallholder cropping activities. The activities that are focussed on livestock and veld management have been led by Mr Cam McDonald and Mr Neil MacLeod (CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems) with assistance from animal and pasture extension staff of the LDA and local Municipalities. Mr Frits van Oudtshoorn, a pasture scientist formerly of the LDA, has also been contracted by the project to assist with training activities and development of extension materials.
The crop based activities have largely engaged smallholder farmers, rather than land reform recipients, and have established an extensive program of applied field research based around the themes of improving soil fertility, agronomic management and the introduction of cash cropping. In the past 12 months, activities have continued in 3 farming communities in 3 districts: farmer associations at Perkesbult/Bloodriver (Capricorn district): in the Mafarana and Gabaza villages (Mopani district); Kulani and Sismukani villages (Bohlabela district-now part of Mpumalanga Province). The activities include demonstrations, researcher/student trials, farmer experiments, farmer discussion workshops, field days and farm walks. Two communities, of >50 resource poor farmers each, have demonstrated through adaptive research that it is possible to transform low-productivity maize-based farming systems into more-profitable enterprises by incorporating grain legume cash crops into rotations with maize. These farmers are now packaging, storing and selling high-value legume products, when just three years earlier they were barely at subsistence levels of food production.
In the past 12 months, the livestock and veld management activities have focused on local capacity building activities for both extension personnel and participant farmers. Field research and training activities have been undertaken with 3 livestock farmer groups based at Steilloop (Waterburg district), Nwanedi (Vhembe district), Maboi (Capricorn district), and in the last year an additional farmer group at Mannamead (Capricorn district). A limited field program has included establishing veld monitoring sites; erecting exclosures to identify relictual site potential and to test the feasibility of spelling, shrub control and other reclamation strategies to reclaim lost productivity of the pasture resources; and skills-based training. A key focus has been the delivery to farmers (100+) and extension staff (20+) of multi-day training courses and follow-up workshops, and the development of appropriate extension material which has been critically unavailable to both extension personnel and individual farmers. In rangeland based beef systems, ~ 40 new farmers resulting from government land reform policies have learnt new skills to better manage soil and pasture resources and beef businesses. Significant outcomes such as the adoption of more sustainable grazing practices such as decreased stocking rates and rotational grazing and successes in marketing beef are evidence that on-going efforts to build capacity in local extension staff and farmers and introduce practical and low risk technologies have been successful. Limited capacity within the government agricultural services to support emerging farmers with appropriate advice, input support or infrastructure investment hampers such demonstrated successes being replicated more widely.

The project is progressing according to plan and on track to meeting all milestones.

Project start-up workshops in Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City, 14-15/2/06, 25 participants) and Indonesia (Makassar, 24-25/7/06, 25 participants) were highly successful and showed strong commitment from project partner organizations and staff in Vietnam (PPD, NIPP, WVV) and Indonesia (IAARD, AIAT, IIRR). Long term objectives and associated activities were reiterated, detailed annual project plans were developed and case study areas were identified.

Project sites in Vietnam (An Giang and Ha Nam) and Indonesia (South Sulawesi and West Java) have been identified on the basis of discussions with experts, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and other programs in the area, and have been established in the third quarter of 2006 in Vietnam (7 treatment and 7 references hamlets in An Giang; 13 treatment and 6 reference hamlets in Ha Nam) and will be established in the first quarter of 2007 in Indonesia. At this first stage of the project treatment sites receive Trap Barrier System (TBS) and/or Community Action (CA) demonstration, extension and information. Note that CA includes ecological rodent management practices like synchronized cropping, timed community campaigns and field hygiene.

In alignment with the establishment of project sites, detailed baseline information for these sites is collected using Knowledge, Attitude and Practice & Socio-Economic (KAP&SE) household surveys, KIIs and FGDs, which were conducted and entered in the second half of 2006 in Vietnam and will be conducted and entered in the first half of 2007 in Indonesia.

Training for project staff included a 2-day KAP&SE survey development and training workshop in Vietnam and Indonesia, and a 4-day ACCESS data entry training workshop in Vietnam. In addition, the 3rd International Conference on Rodent Biology and Management (ICRBM) in Vietnam (Hanoi, 28/8/06 till 1/9/06) provided an excellent opportunity for in-country project leaders to exchange ideas and experiences as well as to present these to the wider scientific community.

Training courses for farmers in Vietnam included eight 1-day workshops on ecological rodent management technologies, to familiarize farmers with the available technologies, their functioning and associated costs. Farmers showed a strong interest in these workshops as evidenced by the number of participants (in total over 600 farmers participated).

Formal linkages to local extension organizations and programs have been strengthened, including linkages with PPD, sub-PPDs and World Vision in Vietnam and linkages with AIAT, sub-AIATs and IIRR in Indonesia. An important additional linkage in Indonesia has been the alignment of the project with the Primatani program, which is a new national program for accelerating dissemination of agricultural production technologies.

The project is progressing according to plan and is on track to meet all milestones.

The main emphasis of the project over the last 12 months has been training of farmers and regional extension staff to consolidate activities on project sites, and also to encourage adoption of sustainable integrated ecological rodent management in neighbouring villages and districts. There were approximately 40 training activities conducted in Vietnam and Indonesia and an estimated 4000 farmers trained. The capacity of core project staff (10 staff) and technical extension staff (approximately 140) has been increased through on-the-job training and formal training courses and workshops.

Project activities in Vietnam (Ha Nam province in the Red River Delta and An Giang province in the Mekong Delta) and Indonesia (Karawang district West Java and Pinrang district in South Sulawesi) have concentrated on establishing community actions (CA includes synchronised cropping, field sanitation, community campaigns at key times), and setting up community trap barrier systems (CTBS), training of farmers, cross visits, and demonstration sites. Farmer activities are monitored through farmer diaries (collected every 2 weeks), damage is assessed at 3 key stages of crop growth, and rice yields are collected at the end of each season. Results so far indicate that yields on treatment sites are 1-2% higher than on reference sites and the cost of rodent management actions conducted are less expensive on treatment sites than on reference sites at a village scale.

The key impacts resulting from project activities over the last 12 months include:
Community impacts: increase participation of farmers and desire to involve community members to manage rats at a community/village level. Carry-over benefit of mutual management for rodents and brown plant hoppers in the Mekong Delta because of synchronised cropping.
Economic impacts: less damage observed on treatment sites and slightly higher rice crop yields, leading to benefits for households.
Social impacts: increased involvement within the farming community to bring a common benefit to the whole community through the rodent management, and involvement in communal rodent management with neighbouring villages.
Environmental impacts: reduction in the use of rodenticides and plastic sheeting used for constructing barriers around individual rice fields.

Another key focus of the project is to implement and promote sustainable integrated rodent management at a large scale, achieved through communication and training activities:
Training activities: Core project staff have undertaken important on-the-job training and structured and formal training courses/workshops, and postgraduate training for 2 ACIAR John Allwright Fellowships for Masters and PhD students to study in Australia.
Communication and dissemination activities: Review workshops involving farmers, extension staff and project staff were conducted to evaluate results from each season and plan activities for the forthcoming season. There have been many training courses with farmers at different times of crop growth to encourage appropriate use and timing of rodent management to achieve desired outcomes. Thousands of rodent management booklets, leaflets and brochures have been distributed to farmers and extension staff in Vietnam and Indonesia.
Project planning: Involving all project partners to generate strong commitment and engagement from key staff and key institutions participating in the project. Planning workshops incorporated discussions and actions for communication planning and scaling out strategies.

The adoption of sustainable integrated ecological rodent management strategies has been promoted through a variety of communication and extension activities to farmers in the target provinces in both Vietnam and Indonesia, but also into neighbouring areas. An important strategy has been to utilise existing extension networks, such as the Primatani system in Indonesia and the "3-reductions and 3-gains" system in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

Other key activities include:
Training with knowledge attitudes and practices and socio-economic farmer survey (KAP&SE) and data entry and preliminary analysis.
Project site visits to monitor activities conducted by farmers, conduct focus group discussions and key informant interviews, attend project planning workshops and assist with training activities.
Preliminary analysis of KAP&SE data.
Key informant interviews in West Java and South Sulawesi with extension agencies, community leaders, credit managers and farmer group leaders to understand the governance arrangements for agricultural extension that condition adoption of the ecological rat control technologies, to understand the structural, financial and cultural barriers to effective extension, and to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies and extension strategies to date.
Development of a rodent population dynamics model to link with a farm household model to explore farmer management decisions, which will be linked with a rice crop model to examine resulting changes in damage and yield loss to rice crops.
Development of household economic models to account for farmer decisions and examine cost-effectiveness of individual and community-based rodent management decisions and specific management scenarios.

Rodents remain a significant pest of lowland irrigated rice cropping systems throughout Southeast Asia causing around 15% yield loss to rice annually. Rodents are the number one pest of rice in Indonesia and one of the top three pests in Vietnam. Farmers describe rodents as the pest they have least control over. Traditionally, farmers have relied heavily on the use of rodenticides, electrocution and spreading sump oil mixed with insecticides onto flooded rice fields to manage the rodent problem, but these can be expensive, are often applied after significant damage has already occurred, and have environmental problems. Rodents affect households that are dependent on rice production for their livelihoods and impact on poor farming communities who have few resources.
This project was designed to implement ecologically-based rodent management (EBRM) which can reduce rat damage, increase yields and reduce the reliance on rodenticides. EBRM relies on an understanding of the ecology of rats which then governs better integrated Community Actions (CA; synchronised cropping, field and village hygiene, rat hunts at key times) and the Community Trap Barrier System (CTBS; plastic fence set with rat traps enclosing a small area of early planted rice). These approaches need community cooperation. Key issues are how to deliver EBRM to the wider farming community, develop extension materials, increase cost-effectiveness, build the capacity of support staff, and develop pathways to enhance the adoption of EBRM.
The project is progressing according to plan and is on track to meet all milestones. The project is due to finish in September 2009. A key focus of the project team is now to quantify the significant adoption and dissemination of EBRM that has occurred, and to complete the post-implementation survey on farmers' knowledge, attitudes and practices. Project activities are concentrated in Vietnam (Ha Nam, Red River Delta; An Giang, the Mekong Delta) and Indonesia (Karawang, West Java; Pinrang, South Sulawesi).
Key results include:
Farmers in Vietnam and Indonesia are effectively managing rodents through CA rather than through individual actions. These are applied early in the rice crop. CTBS have been used in specific locations and at specific times when rodent abundance and damage were high. Through farmer experimentation, linear TBS is used effectively in Indonesia.
The level of rodent damage to rice crops has reduced (now <4% loss). Higher rice yields are reported in areas where EBRM has been implemented.
There has been significant diffusion of EBRM into neighbouring villages, districts and provinces. In Vietnam, all 11 Districts of An Giang are implementing CA. In Ha Nam province CA is implemented in 152 cooperatives. In Karawang, CA is implemented in all villages in the sub-district. In Pinrang, the control site was converted to a treatment site in October 2008. Training and dissemination has occurred in other provinces in both Indonesia and Vietnam.
There have been significant community impacts. In-country staff demonstrated their improved capacity through expanding treatment areas (new villages implementing EBRM through CA), and through the implementation of farmer surveys. Key project staff have attended international training courses. Farmers' knowledge and understanding of rodent biology and management has improved leading to community level management.
Economic impacts have been demonstrated through farmers sharing the cost of CA and materials. Ha Nam farmers contribute rice towards a rat management fund to help pay for community rodent control efforts. Farmers in Indonesia share the cost of purchasing materials and are making cheaper rat traps.
Multiple social impacts have been achieved through involvement in implementation of CA by a range of community organisations (e.g. Cooperatives, Farmers' Union, Women's Union). Farmers report that they feel a greater sense of community. Farmers in Vietnam look forward to get together at community campaigns to catch rats.
Significant environmental impacts are felt in the reduction is use of rodenticides by 62-90% in Vietnam and reduction in use of sump oil and insecticide in Indonesia; increased awareness of the problems of using rodenticides; and elimination of using electricity to kill rats in Vietnam.
A range of training activities has been conducted. Training has occurred in core project areas and in nearby villages leading to the dissemination of EBRM into neighbouring areas. Two project staff attended a training course in the Philippines, and 3 project staff are continuing their training and capacity development through John Allwright Fellowships to undertake post-graduate research degrees in Australia (2 x PhD, 1 x MSc).
The communication and dissemination activities include a presentation to the new CEO of CSIRO, holding follow-up meetings with farmers to report back about the activities and to plan with active input by farmers for the forthcoming rice crop, and through various radio and TV programs that were aired in Indonesia and Vietnam, and though a high profile demonstration site and display during the National Rice Week in Indonesia (35,000 people attended the ICRR event, included the Indonesian President).
Ongoing activities include planning meetings and follow-up visits, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. These will clearly articulate the effective adoption pathways, cost-effectiveness, and capacity building impacts.

Rodents remain a significant pest of lowland irrigated rice cropping systems throughout Southeast Asia causing around 15% yield loss to rice annually. Rodents are the number one pest of rice in Indonesia and one of the top three pests in Vietnam. Farmers describe rodents as the pest they have least control over. Traditionally, farmers have relied heavily on the use of rodenticides, electrocution and spreading sump oil mixed with insecticides onto flooded rice fields to manage the rodent problem, but these can be expensive, are often applied individually by farmers in an uncoordinated manner after significant damage has already occurred, and have environmental problems. Rodents affect households that are dependent on rice production for their livelihoods and impact on poor farming communities who have few resources.
This project was designed to implement ecologically-based rodent management (EBRM) which can reduce rat damage, increase yields and reduce the reliance on rodenticides. This project builds on the findings from previous ACIAR projects (AS1/1998/036). EBRM relies on an understanding of the ecology of rats which then governs better integrated Community Actions (CA; synchronised cropping, field and village hygiene, rat hunts at key times) and the Community Trap Barrier System (CTBS; plastic fence set with rat traps enclosing a small area of early planted rice). These approaches need community cooperation. Key issues are how to deliver EBRM to the wider farming community, develop extension materials, increase cost-effectiveness, build the capacity of support staff, and develop pathways to enhance the adoption of EBRM. The project was successful in delivering these and implementing EBRM.
Project activities occurred in lowland irrigated rice systems in Vietnam (Ha Nam province in the Red River Delta and An Giang province in the Mekong River Delta) and Indonesia (Karawang district West Java and Pinrang district in South Sulawesi). It involved a multidisciplinary team of research and extension agencies in Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines and Australia.
Farming communities in each area were trained and supported in implementing EBRM from 2006. The approach used was the "training-of- trainers" (TOT) of local extension staff which was built up and expanded over the course of the project. Modules were integrated in national training programs. Training and supporting activities expanded from core sites each year and expanded to neighbouring villages and districts over each subsequent year (2007-2009). For example, EBRM activities expanded from 15 communes in Ha Nam Province in 2006 to 152 in 2009. Adoption and diffusion of EBRM was evident outside project areas. There were 17,000 farmers trained in Vietnam and 20,000 farmers trained in Indonesia. Farmer surveys, field observations and interviews were used to assess changes in farmer behaviour and activities.
The majority of farmers adopted CA as a successful rodent control strategy. The adoption of CTBS occurred only on sites where government subsidies were available to farmers. After implementing EBRM, rodent damage was reduced by 33-50% (reduced by up to 88% in Ha Nam Province), rice yields were increased by 2-5%, rodenticide use was reduced by 62-90%, and the use of electrocution was reduced by 95%. There was a strong shift away from individual actions to group or community actions.
Key findings to ensure sustainable EBRM include the need to have good coordination between civic and government agencies to enable farmer participation, strong, effective leadership of farmer groups is required, management needs to be conducted early in the growth of the rice crop before rodent populations commence breeding.
Community impacts include the increase participation of farmers and desire to involve community members to manage rats at a community/village level. There was also benefit of mutual management for rodents and brown plant hoppers in the Mekong Delta because of synchronised cropping. Economic impacts include the reduction in rodent damage leading to increased yields and subsequent increases in benefits for farming households. Social impacts include increased involvement within the farming community to bring a common benefit to the whole community through the rodent management, and involvement in communal rodent management with neighbouring villages. Environmental impacts include the significant reduction in use of rodenticides, plastic sheeting for protecting crops, and use of insecticides mixed with sump oil that was spread over paddy fields. There were 65 scientific reports and publications produced by the project.
This project has successfully demonstrated that it is possible to implement EBRM with farmers in lowland irrigated rice farming systems in Indonesia and Vietnam. To achieve effective and sustainable EBRM it is recommended to use Community Actions which incorporate synchronised cropping, field and village hygiene, rat hunts at key times, but they need to be supported by local and provincial governments.