Charles Sturt University

The overall objective of the project is to improve rice establishment and productivity in rainfed and irrigated rice farming systems of Cambodia.
The project effectively commenced in May 2010.
Key objectives, outputs and activities for the first 12 months are:
1. Assess current and potential rice establishment methods.
Existing outputs literature and data on Cambodia rice farming systems was collated and compiled into a database available through a website at the University of South Australia.
A farmer survey was undertaken in 3 target provinces (Takeo, Kampot and Kampong Thom) Analysis of the farmer survey has commenced and continues. Progress on the survey conduct, coding and analysis has been slower than desired and is expected in September 2011.
2. Assemble a spatial database about Cambodia to better target establishment options.
A spatial data base known as Cambodia Land and Environment Atlas and Resource (CLEAR) has been assembled and is preparing for a beta release. This database has been populated with data accessed from existing data and potential users. The release of the beta version is planned for June 2011.
The CARDI soils laboratory has been enhanced to allow improved soil analysis to be undertaken so that field experiments can be fully understood.. New equipment and resources have been ordered but have not yet arrived for use. Laboratory staff member has undertaken a staff mentoring and training program from experienced Australian soils researchers where new laboratory techniques and general good laboratory management were emphasised. The updated laboratory manual is being translated into Khmer
3. Identify strategies to improve rice establishment and weed management
Field experiments have been undertaken by all Cambodian collaborators - CARDI, GDA and RUA comparing improved methods of rice establishment and weed management. These experiments provided the opportunity for our Cambodian collaborators to enhance their ability to conduct adaptive research. These experiments have been conducted in both wet season (rainfed) and dry season (irrigated) rice growing systems, in replicated experiments on research stations and un-replicated trials on farmers fields. The results of the experiments point to the success of drum seeders and associated lower seeding rates, and the successful use of herbicides for weed control in rice.
Training materials on use of new establishment technology including drum seeders and seed drills have been developed in Khmer and weed control training materials for Cambodia have been developed by IRRI researchers.
4. Evaluate new practices
Field trials have been initiated in dry rice growing season by CARDI, GDA and RUA although linkages between these organisations and agri-business have yet to be developed.
5. Build capacity of Cambodian participating organisations - Cambodian researchers are undertaking replicated field experimentation as part of the project in conjunction - Several meeting to share experiences, and information have been conducted.
6. In Australia, literature review has been conducted and field experiments were undertaken to investigate techniques to improve rice establishment and the tolerance of rice varieties to saline water. These experiments have been compromised to some extent by the end of the drought and the very wet summer that ensued. Issues with cockatoos, plague locusts, ducks and then mice plague conditions.

The lowland and upland farming systems of rainfed southern Lao PDR have been identified as having elevated risk of hunger and rising rural poverty. The Government of Lao PDR recognises the south as an agricultural economy in transition, with a need to ensure that the poor participate in and benefit from the transition process. Increasing the supply of food and generating income from these systems is constrained by low fertility soils, weed competition, production and market risk (including drought and flood) and increasing cost of labour. Ineffective value chains and poor market access, inappropriate product quality, lack of infrastructure, extension and policy support, and complexities of gender roles impede farmers' efforts to change their farming systems. Risk-averse producers have little incentive to invest in better production and higher inputs.
Nevertheless, the lowlands and uplands in the south have potential for market surplus in rice, other crops and livestock, and therefore, a better understanding of regional market potential and comparative advantage is important. In the southern rice-based systems, there are opportunities to intensify and diversify the production systems with livestock and other crops, through the development of new technologies, and the adaptation of knowledge from the northern uplands of Lao PDR and neighbouring countries. Through better use of water resources, there is the opportunity to explore the use of supplementary irrigation to secure rice-based systems against drought, and improve prospects for short-duration post-rice crops and forages for livestock production in lowlands and uplands.
In the first year, a multidisciplinary research team from institutions in Lao PDR, Australia and Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), has established strategic and adaptive field research in the provinces of Savannakhet and Champassak to achieve the following objectives:
Diagnosis and integrated assessment of farming and marketing systems
Optimisation, testing and adaptation of crop and livestock technologies and new marketing and extension approaches
Sharing of knowledge and pilot scaling out of varieties, crop and livestock technologies and marketing approaches
Alleviation of constraints posed by drought and uncontrolled flooding

The analysis of farmers' and value chain operations and synthesis of best-bet technologies has commenced, including transect analysis from lowlands to uplands, and from subsistence to commodity agriculture. Systems research has commenced around several hubs in Savannakhet and Champassak provinces. Adaptive on-farm research is established on approximately 300 farms in ten villages associated with these systems hubs to improve productivity and income from diversified systems in the lowlands and uplands, including attention to the priority poor upland districts of Sepon, Phim and Nong. These adaptive research trials focus on resource management, direct seeding, short-duration post-rice crops such as pulses, vegetables and forages, and the integration of ruminant livestock. On-station trials have been established to understand the interactions underpinning these diversifying mixed-farming systems. Increased National Agriculture & Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI) support to its research centres in the South, via new appointments, and training is raising research capacity in the southern provinces. Farm income should be increased and risks should be lowered in lowlands and uplands with supplementary watering, as systems diversify with reduced labour requirements, direct seeding and appropriate mechanisation to secure increased and stabilised rice, post-rice crop and forage yields and younger and heavier cattle.

The lowland and upland farming systems of rainfed southern Lao PDR have been identified as having elevated risk of hunger and rising rural poverty. The Government of Lao PDR recognises the south as an agricultural economy in transition, with a need to ensure that the poor participate in and benefit from the transition process. Increasing the supply of food and generating income from these systems is constrained by low fertility soils, weed competition, production and market risk (including drought and flood) and increasing cost of labour. Ineffective value chains and poor market access, inappropriate product quality, lack of infrastructure, extension and policy support, and complexities of gender roles impede farmers' efforts to change their farming systems. Risk-averse producers have little incentive to invest in better production and higher inputs.
Nevertheless, the lowlands and uplands in the south have potential for market surplus in rice, other crops and livestock, and therefore, a better understanding of regional market potential and comparative advantage is important. In the southern rice-based systems, there are opportunities to intensify and diversify the production systems with livestock and other crops, through the development of new technologies, and the adaptation of knowledge from the northern uplands of Lao PDR and neighbouring countries. Through better use of water resources, there is the opportunity to explore the use of supplementary irrigation to secure rice-based systems against drought, and improve prospects for short-duration post-rice crops and forages for livestock production in lowlands and uplands. Farm income should be increased and risks should be lowered in lowlands and uplands with supplementary watering, as systems diversify with reduced labour requirements, direct seeding and appropriate mechanisation to secure increased and stabilised rice, post-rice crop and forage yields and younger and heavier cattle.
A multidisciplinary research team from institutions in Lao PDR, Australia and Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), has established strategic and adaptive field research in the provinces of Savannakhet and Champassak, on-station and on-farm during the 2010 wet season and 2010/2011 dry season, with the following objectives:
Diagnosis and integrated assessment of farming and marketing systems
Optimisation, testing and adaptation of crop and livestock technologies and new marketing and extension approaches
Sharing of knowledge and pilot scaling out of varieties, crop and livestock technologies and marketing approaches
Alleviation of constraints posed by drought and uncontrolled flooding

In the first year, the analysis of farmers' and value chain operations and synthesis of best-bet technologies has commenced, including transect analysis from lowlands to uplands, and from subsistence to commodity agriculture. Systems research has commenced around several hubs in Savannakhet and Champassak provinces. Adaptive on-farm research is established on approximately 300 farms in ten villages associated with these systems hubs to improve productivity and income from diversified systems in the lowlands and uplands, including attention to the priority poor upland districts of Sepon, Phim and Nong. These adaptive research trials focus on resource management, direct seeding, short-duration post-rice crops such as pulses, vegetables and forages, and the integration of ruminant livestock. On-station trials have been established to understand the interactions underpinning these diversifying mixed-farming systems. Increased National Agriculture & Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI) support to its research centres in the South via new appointments and training, is raising research capacity in the southern provinces.

Vegetable consumption in Cambodia is currently one of the lowest in Asia. In 2010, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries estimated vegetable production at 376 546 tonnes. Whilst production has increased somewhat in recent years it is still insufficient to meet current consumer demand with domestic production heavily supplemented by imports. The RGC has a long term strategy to replace these imports with local production and to increase vegetable consumption.
It is in this context that HORT/2006/107 seeks to build on its predecessor HORT/2003/045 and to implement a seed to plate approach to vegetable research and development in Cambodia, and in doing so, enhance Cambodian vegetable farmers' ability to meet domestic demand for high quality and nutritious tomatoes, chillies and leafy vegetables.
The project is a partnership between 2 Australian organisations: NSW Department of Primary Industries and Charles Sturt University; 3 Cambodian organisations: General Directorate of Agriculture; Cambodian Agriculture Research and Development Institute and Royal University of Agriculture and 1 International organisation: Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre.
The objectives of the project are to:
 To more fully map supply chains for tomatoes, chillies and leafy vegetables;
 To improve product quality and supply through delivery of technical packages on production, disease management and supply chain management;
 To build capacity of research and extension staff in vegetable production and postharvest research, and plant pathology and
 To better understand gaps in vegetable extension material and produce an appropriate suite of materials suitable for use with farmers and supply chain participants.
Key outputs/activities in 2010/2011 have included:
 Completion of the 'Vegetable Value Chain Analysis' in Kampot and Kandal. Four reports on the different components have been produced by CARDI and these are currently being consolidated into a succinct Value Chain Report;
 Commencement of an irrigation adoption study looking at reasons why farmers adopt or abandon new technologies, such as the IDE low-cost drip irrigation system. Insights gained will enable us to develop better extension strategies that will facilitate the adoption of new technologies or improved production/postharvest practices;
 Completion of trial work towards the development of an effective low-cost pre-cooling system for leafy vegetables. The next step will be demonstrating this system to collectors in Kandal province;
 For the pathology component, the completion of farmer surveys in the provinces of Kandal and Kampot, disease surveys in both provinces, joint training and sharing of facilities, and the successful running of the first plant disease workshop activity;
 For the production component, further on-farm trial work looking at the implementation of improved production practices including new varieties, low cost drip irrigation systems, mulching and optimised crop nutrition;
 Building project team capacity in the development of effective extension materials that will lead to the production of a series of Farmer Fact Sheets covering varieties, improved production and postharvest management and pest and disease management.
 For the Australian component, the continued development of extension resources for NESB growers.

The project is progressing very well with all team members interacting well despite the challenges of distance and different organisations. Many on-farm experiments have been set up in both Ludhiana/Amritsar (95 ha) and Modipuram (25 ha). This is an improvement on previous years and shows increasing interest from local farmers. While these areas have been largely sown with machines supplied by our research colleagues, it is anticipated that the interest shown by Punjab government departments will result in programs and assistance which will encourage more private ownership of the machines, either by farmers or contractors.

The on farm agronomic trials in both areas in India have been very well established and monitored and many excellent results obtained. The replicated trials looking at nitrogen x residue x irrigation management using the Happy Seeder approach representing major soil types of NW India have resulted in good data being collected at all sites. These are being analysed and will be reported on at a later date. The literature review and spatial analysis to ascertain the areas of Australia which might be suitable for the Happy Seeder approach are in progress.

The machinery development has continued at the Punjab Agricultural University and with local manufacturers. The aim of this work is to produce a machine which can be operated by the more common 35 HP tractors. To this end the PAU colleagues have been experimenting with wider row spacing, which allows removal of alternate cutting mechanisms, as well as every second tyne seed and fertilizer distributors and soil engaging points, thus considerably reducing the gross weight of the machines.

The economic work is well advanced. Data has been collected from five sites in the Punjab, representing different agro-climatic zones with respect to soils, water and climate. These comprise sites near Amritsar, Nawan Shahar, Sangrur, Fatehgarh Sahib and Ludhiana, and two sites from Uttar Pradesh, namely Meerut and Ghaziabad. In all 39 farmers were selected for the purpose of the study and the break up is: 11 farmers from Sangrur, 10 farmers from Fatehgarh Sahib, 7 farmers from Amritsar, two farmers from Nawan Shahar, one farmer from Ludhiana and 8 farmers from Modipuram site (UP). To collect the information from the respondent wheat growers a comprehensive survey schedule was developed. The data have been collected using a personal interview method. An attempt has been made to determine realized / foreseen potential benefits as well as the problems of the respondent farmers while using/adopting Happy Seeder technology. In addition to this, suggestions for fine-tuning / refining this technology were also sought from the respondent farmers

Field days, workshops and training sessions have been undertaken in India where much interest in the technique has been expressed. In Australia, although much interest has been show and one field day resulted in the importation of a further machine into Tasmania, more development of the machine is necessary to make it suitable for the heavy and wet rice soils and straw prevalent in Australia.

One of the highlights of the past year has been the reciprocal visit of the Indian and Pakistani Happy Seeder teams (ACIAR companion project LWR/2004/035) to their respective machinery manufacturing and agronomic sites in April 2008. Much cross fertilization occurred, which hopefully will result in improved developments in both countries. Both project teams in India and Pakistan are doing a great job exposing the technique and its potential to many farmers, business men, manufacturers and people of influence in relevant government departments. There is growing confidence that with government support to make the machine more affordable and thus accessible to farmers and contractors the technique will become the alternative of choice to address air pollution from residue burning.

The relationship between the researchers and the manufactures is excellent, without this trusted relationship the development of the machines would not be at the current advanced stage.

The machinery development continued at the Punjab Agricultural University and with local manufacturers. The aim of this work has been to produce a machine which can be operated by the more common 35 horsepower tractors in India, our PAU colleagues and various manufacturers have considerably reduced the gross weight and power requirement of the latest model machines.

The economic work is well advanced with data being collected from five sites in the Punjab representing different agroclimatic zones with respect to soils, water, and climate (Amritsar, Nawan Shahar, Sangrur, Fatehgarh Sahib and Ludhiana) and two sites from Uttar Pradesh (Meerut and Ghaziabad) having been selected for the study during 2007-08. The analysis of the data shows an improvement in soil health due to recycling the residues, decline in weed population, reduction in herbicide use up to 50%, and irrigation water saving upto 10-12 cm/ha. The study also shows that there is remarkable energy saving due to reduction in the number tillage and tractor operations by 7.5 hrs/ha and labour saved by 24 hrs/ha. The environmental benefits included reduction in the production of CO2, CO, SO2, saving 45 litres of diesel that would help to reduce about 120 kg of CO2 emissions and saving 20-30% of water that would help to save 80 kWh of electricity & 160 kg of CO2. During 2008-09 the economic surveys were also conducted at both the Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh. The analysis of the techniques Australian economic potential is also well advanced. Data will be analysed and reported in our next report.

Many on-farm participatory trials were conducted during 2007-08 at 46 locations in Punjab covering the five districts and 15 trials in Western Uttar Pradesh covering the three districts. Yield of these trials were recorded and results showed that a 3-10 percent higher grain yield were achieved with the happy seeder technology over conventional farmers' practice. Farmers were encouraged by the previous results of the happy seeder technology and hence was adopted on more than 280 ha during 2008-09 as compared to 80 ha during 2007-08. In addition , the Department of Agriculture, Punjab had sown 70 ha area with happy seeder in different districts including 95 demonstrations in which 87 % of participating farmers achieved a higher yield compared to conventional practice.

On-station experiments to study the timing and method of N fertilization in no till wheat sown into rice straw were conducted at the research farm, PAU, Ludhiana and SVBUA&T, Modipuram. Application of N at pre-sowing irrigation in happy seeder technology produced higher grain yields, whilst broadcasting N at the time of sowing proved inferior compared to other methods and timing of fertilizeration. Surface residue retention decomposed slowly due to less contact with soil and soil micro flora as compared to residue incorporated. Residue mulch created with happy seeder technology moderated the soil hydro thermal regime and reduced canopy temperature thus providing beneficial heat relief during the grain filling stage.

Field days, workshops and training sessions have been conducted where much interest in the technique has been expressed by the farmers and officials. In Australia, much interest has been shown and one field day resulted in the importation of a further machine into Tasmania. One of the highlights of the current project has been the reciprocal visit of the Indian and Pakistani teams to their respective machinery manufacturing and agronomic sites. Much exchange occurred, which hopefully will result in more developments in both countries. Unfortunately the Australian team was unable to be with the groups during the visits due to travel restrictions.
The project teams are doing a great job showing the technique and its potential to many farmers, business men, manufactures and people of influence in relevant government departments. We are all confident that with government support we shall be able to make the machine more affordable and thus accessible to farmers and contractors. The technique will take off as an alternative to techniques which require either total or partial burning.
The relationship between the researchers and the manufactures is excellent. Without this trusted relationship the development of the machines would not have been at the current advanced stage.

This ACIAR project is making an incredible impact in the Punjab and western UP regions of India.

The machinery development continued at the Punjab Agricultural University and with local manufacturers. The aim of this work has been to produce a machine which can be operated by the more common 35 horsepower tractors in India, our PAU colleagues and various manufacturers have considerably reduced the gross weight and power requirement of the latest model machines.

Many on-farm participatory trials were conducted during 2008-09 at 24 locations in Western Uttar Pradesh covering the three districts. Yield of these trials were recorded and results showed that a significantly higher grain yield was achieved with the happy seeder technology over conventional farmers' practice. Farmer's were encouraged by the previous results of the happy seeder technology and hence it was adopted on more than 100 acres during 2008-09 as compared to 60 acre during 2007-08. Many similar trial were carried out in the Punjab with similar results being obtained, and over 800 acres sown in 2010

On-station experiments to study the timing and method of N fertilization in no till wheat sown into rice straw were conducted at the research farm, SVBUA&T, Modipuram. Application of N in splits after seeding using happy seeder technology produced higher grain yields, whilst broadcasting N at the time of sowing and pre sowing irrigation proved inferior compared to other methods and timing of fertilization. Surface residue retention decomposed slowly due to less contact with soil and soil micro flora as compared to residue incorporated. Residue mulch created with happy seeder technology moderated the soil hydro thermal regime and reduced canopy temperature providing beneficial heat relief during the critical grain filling stage.

In the Punjab,two replicated field experiments on sandy loam (farmers' field at Sangrur) and silt loam soils (PAU Ludhiana) were conducted during 2008-09 to study the effect of date of sowing, row spacing (20 cm and 25.7 cm) using 9-row versus 7-row machines and two wheat varieties on wheat yields. The experiment was laid down in a split plot design with three replications. Total rice straw load averaged 8.5t/ha on silt loam and 8.6 t ha-1 on the sandy loam. Treatments were arranged in a split plot design with two DOS treatments as main and varieties and row spacing as sub plot treatments. The experiment at PAU was conducted with two dates of sowing (3rd November and 29th November), two types of machine (9 and 7 row happy seeder), and two wheat varieties (PBW 343 and PBW 550).

Field days, workshops, travelling seminars and training sessions have been conducted over many sites, soil types and geographic spread, where much interest in the technique has been expressed by farmers and officials.

The overarching aim of this project is to protect the viability of the important oil palm industry and the economic and social benefits that flow from production on plantations and smallholdings in Papua New Guinea. Specifically, the work concerns Finschhafen disorder (FD), a problem that was first observed on coconut palms near Finschhafen, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (PNG) in 1960, and is now a potential threat to the production of palm oil. The very limited amount of previous research suggested that FD may be a direct consequence of feeding by a native PNG planthopper Zophiuma lobulata Ghauri (Hemiptera: Lophopidae). Previous studies however, pre-dated the availability of molecular biology methods that enable detection of possible plant pathogens. Z. lobulata belongs to a group of insects widely implicated in vectoring plant pathogens in other crops.
A full time Postdoctoral Fellow (Dr Catherine Gitau) has been recruited to the project from the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology in Kenya. She, and the project leader (Prof Geoff Gurr), have visited PNG to work with Charles Dewhurst Head of Entomology at PNG Oil Palm Research Association. Molecular biology and taxonomic expertise have been contributed by the ongoing involvement of Drs Andrew Mitchell and Murray Fletcher, respectively, of NSW Department of Primary Industries.
The first objective of this project is to develop a comprehensive biological understanding of the causes of FD. In pursuit of this, bibliographic information on FD and Z. lobulata as well as similar disorders and pests has been sourced from various scientific databases and an electronic library has been compiled using a proprietary bibliographic software package. Copies of all relevant publications have been collected and complemented by a significant volume of personal communication material that has been obtained from liaison with palm health researchers around the world. All of this information has been synthesised into a comprehensive review article that will be submitted for publication in a scientific journal.
The identity of Z. lobulata has been confirmed by comparing specimens collected from a range of locations in West New Britain with the formal taxonomic description for specimens from various parts of mainland PNG. This project has employed morphological characters, particularly male genitalia, and molecular methods using the CO1 gene. Results indicated consistency of all morphological and molecular characters and there was no evidence found for additional or cryptic species.
Screening of Z. lobulata and palm material for possible microbial pathogens is well advanced and a series of large insect-proof cages has been constructed to establish an experiment to elucidate the role of Z. lobulata and its relationship with FD. Laboratory studies have shown that planthoppers will feed on a 5% sucrose solution presented through a semipermeable membrane. This will enable samples of saliva to be collected from individual planthoppers for DNA testing for the presence of potential pathogens.
Field work aiming to identify natural enemies of Z. lobulata that could be used as biological control agents resulted in the collection of several taxa of parasitic wasps belonging to the family Mymaridae and a currently undetermined genus. These were common parasitoids of Z. lobulata egg masses on West New Britain. Samples of the Myrmaridae have been sent to Canada for identification and formal description (they are likely to be new species). Samples of Z. lobulata that had been killed by insect diseases especially fungus have been collected from various sites in West New Britain and preserved material delivered to Australia. Preliminary identifications suggest most are a species of Sporothrix whilst others are from Gliomatix or similar genus. Further taxonomic and pathogenicity studies are planned.

Monthly monitoring of Z. lobulata numbers and FD symptoms on betel nut, oil and coconut palm has been running since January 2008 on a small holder oil palm block in West New Britain.
Work on the second objective of the project - to develop preliminary control methods for FD is at an early stage because it is contingent on the findings of the first objective.
Yellow sticky traps have been evaluated in the field for monitoring adult Z. lobulata but proved to be ineffective. An experiment comparing a range of alternative trap colours is in progress.
Laboratory experiments have taken place to evaluate the influence of nectar rich ground cover plants on the lifespan of the mymarids. Results showed that adults lived longer with access to the flowers compared with those that were fed on water alone. Further work will be conducted in June 2008 using a variety of different cover crops and additional species of natural enemies to identify the scope for these plants to be used as a management approach that attract and support biological control agents of Z. lobulata.

The objective of this project is to protect the viability of the oil palm industry in Papua New Guinea. It aims to enhance the social and economic benefits that emanate from production of the oil palm in plantations and smallholdings. The main work concerns Finschhafen disorder (FD), a problem first reported from coconut palms near Finschhafen, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (PNG) in 1960, that is now a threat to palm oil production. Research conducted in the 1980s implicated a native PNG planthopper Zophiuma lobulata Ghauri (Hemiptera: Lophopidae). Methods used to in that study pre-dated the availability of molecular biology tools that enable detection of possible plant pathogens. This project has so far used these tools to screen plant and insect material for a variety of pathogens known to be vectored in other crops by a group of insects to which Z. lobulata belongs. Transmission experiments in large cages and small sleeves have also been used to study FD causality.
In the last year, the project leader (Prof Geoff Gurr) and the Postdoctoral Fellow (Dr Catherine Gitau) visited PNG once and four times respectively, to conduct experiments and work with Mr. Charles Dewhurst, Head of Entomology at PNG Oil Palm Research Association (OPRA). Molecular biology and taxonomic expertise have been contributed by Drs Andrew Mitchell and Murray Fletcher, respectively, of New South Wales Department of Primary Industries.
The first objective of this project is to develop a comprehensive biological understanding of the causes of FD. The second objective is to develop preliminary control measures for FD.
In pursuit of the first objective, bibliographic information on FD and Z. lobulata as well as similar disorders and pests of palms has been sourced from various scientific databases and an electronic library has been compiled using the EndNote bibliographic software package. Copies of all relevant publications have been collected and complemented by a significant volume of personal communication material that has been obtained from liaison with palm health researchers around the world. All of this information has been synthesised into a comprehensive review article that has recently been accepted for publication in the Australian Journal of Entomology.
The identity of Z. lobulata has been confirmed by comparing specimens collected from four locations in PNG. We have used the formal description made by Ghauri (1966) to confirm the identity of Z. lobulata collected from mainland PNG and West New Britain and those associated with coconut, oil palms, as well as betel nut. Results showed consistency in Z. lobulata male genitalia of all the specimens. Molecular methods using the CO1 gene showed the same consistency. Results indicate consistency in all morphological and molecular characters and there is no evidence for additional or cryptic species. We therefore conclude that there is only one species associated with FD. In addition, another congeneric planthopper, similar to Z. lobulata, namely Z. pupillata (Stl) collected from coconut and sugarcane in mainland PNG has been compared with Z. lobulata using both morphological taxonomy and barcoding. Currently, the CO1 sequence data is being analysed and a formal article to be submitted into a taxonomic journal is in preparation.
Comprehensive screening for possible microbial pathogens in Z. lobulata and oil palm material has been conducted. Insect and plant material were thoroughly screened using current molecular biology tools for pathogens, particularly phytoplasmas and bacteria-like organisms (BLOs). Saliva samples that were collected in 5% sucrose solution were also screened for pathogens. The saliva was collected by presenting sucrose solution contained in an Eppendorf tube which was covered with a semipermeable membrane, to the planthoppers for feeding.
Large insect-proof cages (1.8mx1.8mx2.5m) were constructed and used in a study that aimed at elucidating the role of Z. lobulata in FD. Z. lobulata that were raised from eggs in the laboratory and those collected from the field were released into the cages in an additive process over a period of 8 months. Both the lab-reared and field-collected Z. lobulata induced FD symptoms in previously healthy coconut and oil palms. Small sleeve experiments were further set up to corroborate the large cage experiments. Results from the sleeve experiments are expected by year 2 month 8.
Field work aimed at identifying natural enemies of Z. lobulata that could be used as biocontrol agents resulted in the collection of several taxa of parasitic wasps belonging to the families Mymaridae and Encyrtidae. These were the common parasitoids of Z. lobulata egg masses on West New Britain and Milne Bay in mainland PNG. Samples of the Mymaridae were sent to Canada and UK for identification and revealed that they are new species. The mymarids are Parastethynium sp. near P. mayeri and the encyrtids are Ooencyrtus near O. minor or O. major.
Samples of Z. lobulata that had been killed by insect diseases, especially fungi, have been collected from various sites in West New Britain and preserved material delivered to Australia. With the help of Dr Michael Priest, DPI Orange and Dr Hywel-Jones in Thailand, preliminary identifications of the fungus suggest that most are from Gliomatix or a similar genus and Hirsutella citriformis, an entomopathogenic fungus with a pantropical distribution, although it could be a complex of related species.
Work on the second major objective of the project - to develop preliminary control methods for FD - is contingent on the findings of the first objective. However, monthly monitoring of Z. lobulata numbers and FD symptoms on betel nut, coconut and oil palm was conducted between January 2008 and February 2009 on a smallholder oil palm block in West New Britain. Another site at Dami Research Station has been identified and monthly monitoring will be conducted in a similar manner in 2009/2010. Results suggest that direct visualisation of Z. lobulata egg masses may be viable as a monitoring tool.
A variety of coloured sticky traps was evaluated in the field to assess trapping as a monitoring tool for Z. lobulata. Eight colours were evaluated. Results did not reveal significant differences in attractiveness, based on colour. Moreover the numbers of Z. lobulata adults and nymphs captured were very low. Future experiments using trap-and-kill approaches will be considered.
Laboratory experiments evaluating the influence of nectar rich-ground cover plants on the lifespan of mymarid and encyrtid parasitoids were conducted. Results showed that adults lived longer when they had access to flowers compared with those that were fed on water alone. Further work on the biology and applicability of these parasitoids in oil palm habitats is planned in the next phase of the project.