This project provides a foundation for improved food security and increased cash income for some of the poorest farmers in India, through improved understanding of small watershed hydrology with respect to water harvesting, developing easy-to-use principles for design and implementation of water harvesting technology, evaluation of downstream hydrologic impacts, and developing crop options and farming systems that effectively use land and water resources. The project commenced on 1 April, 2006. Activities within each of 5 project objectives include:

1. Develop, validate and promote water harvesting principles
The basis of WSD, as practiced by the NGO partner, PRADAN, is social development through self-help groups, a process which has commenced and will proceed throughout the project.

The first step in developing a watershed development plan is to understand the resources available and any constraints to development. PRADAN is undertaking socioeconomic 'mapping', and other team members are focused on the biophysical assessment. Soil and landscape assessment within the case study watershed (Pogro) has focused on: a) soil descriptions and classification, with 12 soil pits completed, representing the major landscape units and variation within them; b) surface soil sampling and analysis for fertility assessment within each of the main landscape units (~100 sites in Pogro watershed, and in Amagara where agronomic work will be located initially), with the partially completed analyses revealing higher pH than expected for this region (lowland mean pH 7.2, medium lowland 6.0 and uplands 5.5) but consistent with observations of annual Medicago spp., and indicating organic carbon is low at all locations (0.6-0.7%) as with exchangeable potassium; c) water resource assessment using EM38 and EM31 electromagnetic induction, with watershed maps of conductivity having been produced and instrument calibration proceeding to convert this to estimates of profile water. PRADAN have produced a 'resource map' of the Pogro watershed. All data will be georeferenced and mapped onto cadastral maps (scanned into ArcView) or a topographic map which has been created in ArcView from our dGPS.

Work has just commenced on developing databases of climate and hydrology for subsequent modelling purposes. In Pogro, baseline hydrologic conditions are being established through gauging surface flow at the outlet by placing gauges on the wall of two culverts and training a local farmer to take readings as required. Thirteen piezometers have been installed for monitoring shallow groundwater, and water level in 7 wells is also being monitored, as well as water level in 4 'ponds' in which staff gauges have been located.

A conceptual model for hydrology of small watersheds has been developed that could form the basis for modelling from which criteria ('thumb rules') can be developed to either assess the suitability of small watersheds for development or to plan, design and install water harvesting measures. Fill rate tests have been conducted on bore holes as a first step to develop design principles for 'seepage tanks'.

2. Make a preliminary assessment of the applicability and sustainability of water harvesting across the East India Plateau.
The first step has been to review hydrologic and geo-hydrologic models.

3. Develop cropping system options and improved agronomy to effectively use harvested water.
Participatory workshops and other activities led to a set of issues where the objectives of the project and farmers coincided. Three action-learning fertiliser workshops (75 farmers) followed, which included subsequent on-farm experiences. Planning for this 'experience', together with earlier workshops, led to agreed experiments evaluating maize, black gram, upland rice and finger millet as alternative crops for upland areas and poorer upland paddy, all with fertiliser treatments, and to evaluation of fertiliser responses on kharif rice. In Amagara, rice of 3 different durations was planted as the commencement of a cropping systems experiment that evaluates the opportunities and costs associated with shorter duration rice varieties, which has emerged as a central theme for the agronomy/farming systems work. Other experiments explored the growing of early season vegetables, but the focus here is on the change process amongst farmers. In all, more than 90 farmers have been involved in the design, implementation and management of these trials, all of which are replicated across farmer's fields. Harvest has not been completed, but already it is clear that there are very large responses to P in all crops, to K in legumes, and to N in non-leguminous crops. Native rhizobia appear to be effective on the legumes examined.

4. Evaluate biophysical and socioeconomic impacts
A workshop was held in Toowoomba involving most team members (8 from India) at which a participatory evaluation process and framework was developed and a set of indicators.

5. Enhance the capacity of PRADAN (and other NGO's) to undertake watershed development.
PRADAN has been exposed to new ways of conducting on-farm investigations which should involve no more resources but provide much better information. Rigorous evaluation of all activities has been implemented, to introduce greater discipline into the (continuous) learning process. New crop options have been collaboratively developed for evaluation. PRADAN have been exposed to GIS, which may be introduced into broader activities.

Watershed development (WSD) is a major strategy for livelihood improvement. Often the strategy is not underpinned by sound hydrology; agronomic improvement is not integrated with 'water harvesting'; and questions have been raised about the costs and benefits, especially in lower-rainfall areas. This project uses participatory action research to develop principles for WSD for the high rainfall East India Plateau. It will:

1. Develop, validate and promote water harvesting principles

2. Make preliminary assessment of the applicability and sustainability of water harvesting

3. Develop cropping systems and improved agronomy to effectively use harvested water,

4. Evaluate biophysical and socioeconomic impacts, and

5. Enhance the capacity of PRADAN and other NGO's to undertake WSD.

Implementation of the research follows 5 concurrent 'themes' in WSD: (i) Resource assessment, (ii) Developing social capacity, (iii) Improving agronomic skill (iv) Developing crop options and farming systems and (v) Integrating water resource management.

Pre-and post-intervention monitoring of socioeconomic and biophysical indicators is being undertaken in a case-study catchment (Pogro). In the pre-intervention period (2006-'08), intensive resource assessment (i) and capacity building (ii and iii) are being undertaken and evaluated, along with preliminary evaluation of new crop options and their management for the kharif in uplands (iv). Novel farming systems (iv) and integration of rainfed and irrigated cropping (v) are being developed in Amagara. Options developed in Amagara will be integrated and evaluated following intervention in Pogro (v).

Key Findings

Process
Villagers have participated fully and enthusiastically in the action learning cycle of "planning (the research activity) - doing (planting /managing fields) - observing (gathering data, making visual observations) and reflecting (workshops for making sense, understanding)". Following a review of all results in a crop season ('reflection'), farmers and the research team rate each activity for its contribution to learning about important issues and assess whether more work on a topic or new topics is needed, followed by further planning etc. In the kharif seasons of 2006 and 2007, experiments were placed in 111 and 257 farmer's fields, respectively, whilst a further 34 fields were involved in the 2006/07 rabi season (Amagara only). We have witnessed increasing willingness and capacity of farmers to take responsibility for improving their situation. Involving women's self-help groups (SHG's) to organise on-farm activities has released the research team from the need to encourage and sometimes cajole farmers to do what they had agreed to do, resulting in a much higher compliance with previously agreed actions. Farmers at Amagara show evidence of a 'transformation' in attitude from 'beneficiary of aid' to 'manager of resources'.

Resource assessment - Pogro
Profile soil descriptions and other data were used to map soil types. Surface soil fertility was assessed in conjunction with a survey of crop yields (see below).

Soils are generally less acid (pH 5.5 -7) than expected, except for isolated upland surface soils (pH<5). Near-neutrality is indicated by the annual legume Medicago sp., a valuable animal feed and medicinal herb. Soil nitrogen (N) and organic carbon (C) are low, as expected, and 'plant available' phosphorus (P) is almost universally very low. Deficient P and ubiquitous Medicago suggest the catchment ecosystem might be primarily P-constrained, not N-constrained. Infiltration rates were moderately high in uplands (10-30 mm/hr) but low in drained rice fields, both at the surface and below the puddled zone.

The cadastral map has been scanned and ortho-rectified. A digital terrain model has been developed from dGPS data. Hydrologic features such as drainage lines, wells, ponds have been geo-referenced and water levels monitored and recorded, in 15 piezometers (not all active), 7 wells and 4 ponds, and in 2 culverts at the catchment outlet.

Electro-magnetic induction (EM31/38) Surveys of Pogro and Amagara have been completed in wet and dry periods. The signal responds to profile water content, but not as strongly as expected, presumably because of low electrical conductivity of these highly leached profiles. Evaluation of EMI for water resource assessment is continuing.

PRADAN have prepared resource maps and intervention plans based on their conventional approach for later evaluation using project outputs.

Developing social capacity and improving agronomy (human capacity)
The participatory process following the PRADAN model has been extended to include systematic investigation of soil and water resources with the intention of further increasing social and human capacity to undertake the complex task of watershed development. An important learning is that the role of women's SHG's can be expanded from micro-finance to include oversight of technical issues. Workshops on fertilisers included field experiments by farmers, that excited much interest and enhanced basic agronomic skills. In Amagara, the team responded to a request for work on early-season vegetables by developing the activity as an enquiry into the extension process. There was evidence that this contributed to the transformation in attitude referred to above. Soil/crop surveys also excited interest, with villagers calling for them to be repeated and expanded in 2007.

Developing crop options and farming systems
Experiments in Pogro in the kharif 2006 and '07 explored constraints to productivity and new crop options for uplands or 'poor' rice fields. Experiments in Amagara in the '06/'07 rabi explored cropping on residual water under rainfed and irrigated conditions, aimed at efficient irrigation strategies combined with improved crop nutrition. Short-duration rice is being examined as a means of reducing climate risk whilst increasing the opportunity to take a second crop (with or without supplementary irrigation). Experiments are statistically designed for scientific rigour yet compatible with farmer-participation.

Key findings from the 2006 kharif were:
o In the rice crop survey at Pogro:
Yield was equal in 'good' and 'poor' rice land in this favourable year, showing that differences in perception of land quality relate to reliability for rice production, not intrinsic agronomic potential.
Yields were positively (significantly) related to available P and mineralisable N.
Unquantified management factors were also important.
o In comparisons of matched rice fields, increasing P by 10 kg/ha over the farmer's rate (often zero) increased yield by 20%, with further increase with additional N.
o P doubled yields in black gram at Pogro, and residual response to P is evident in natural Medicago.
o Responses to P were observed in maize, finger millet and direct-seeded rice.
o In the rabi experiments at Amagara:
Wheat and mustard failed without P, but good yields were obtained with P up to 50kg (P)/ha.
One or two irrigations (each ~ 40 mm) gave yields approaching full irrigation (4-5 irrigations), apparently by using residual water in the soil after rice.

Water resource management
Conceptual models have been developed to simulate the water balance at the scales of individual intervention, small catchment (1-2 km2) or large catchment (2-300 km2). These will be used to develop water harvesting design principles and ultimately 'thumb rules' for use by agencies involved in WSD. They will also allow evaluation of cumulative out-of-catchment impacts as WSD is scaled up.

The farming systems model APSIM is being parameterised using local data to explore long-term viability of alternative crop options, the costs and benefits of short-duration rice, and alternative irrigation strategies.

This project uses participatory action research to develop and promote principles for Watershed Development (WSD) for the high rainfall East India Plateau (EIP).

Key Findings 2007-2008
Process
Villagers continued to participate fully and with increasing enthusiasm in the action learning cycle (Plan, Do, Observe, Reflect). It is apparent that development intervention needs to go beyond engaging self-help groups (SHG's), to 'family-wise' planning that ensures all members understand their role and agree on what can be done and who will do it. This is to avoid further increasing the workload of women, to ensure equitable sharing of work, and to ensure thorough understanding of technical requirements.

Developing social capacity and improving agronomy (human capacity)
A Village Core Committee (VCC) was formed from the SHG's in Amagara in 2007 to improve project implementation. This shifted the ownership and responsibility for trial site selection and management from the team to the farmers. The high standard of management at trial sites and the reduced level of team support needed, point to a great success. Further development and wider evaluation of this process is planned, as it may support implementation of any complex intervention such as WSD. A mixed-gender group of 48 adults met in Amagara in May, 2008 to finalise plans for the kharif. It comprised the VCC and other interested farmers. The size of this voluntary group and the high level of participation indicate the growing importance attached by villagers to the planning process. This large group of poorly-educated subsistence farmers engaged in a business-like way in planning a complex research project, indicating development in their capacity to deal with complex issues and integrate them into village life. Similar observations have been made at Pogro. Involving the VCC has meant that training in agronomic skills provided by the team is now being taken up more carefully and more widely. This training is being supported by research findings on crop nutrition and irrigation and the continuing crop and fertility survey work. Improved crop management practices have been introduced to more than 100 farmers, and we believe substantial upskilling in agronomy has occurred.

Developing crop options and farming systems
- Soil and crop management survey (Pogro and Amagara).
Again there was no significant difference in rice yield between the land classes despite a trend towards lower yields in baid. In Pogro, rice yields were positively related to available P and mineralisable N (R2 = 0.6, P<0.05). There was no significant association between yield and exchangeable K at either location, despite generally low soil-K concentrations (<100 mg/kg). Management factors were also important.

- Split-field nutrition studies
Phosphorus - At Pogro, there was a 23% yield response to 30 kg/ha P across all land classes (P<0.01). In Amagara, the response to P was significant only in Baid land, but it was detectable despite lack of significant response overall in the fertility survey.
Potassium - At Pogro and Amagara there were 27% (P<0.01) and 7% (P<0.1) yield increases with added K, despite there being no apparent association between soil-K and yield in the soil/crop survey. More work is needed.
Zinc - There was no response to Zn at either location.
Nitrogen - Many of the high K and High P plots appeared to be N deficient.

The survey work is well received by farmers and raising awareness about sources of yield variation. With sufficient fields and measurements, relationships between soil attributes (eg P) and yield can be established, but imprecisely and at significant cost. Paired-plots are more efficient for identifying nutrient deficiencies, but they don't give the dose-response function. We are working on a composite approach to test in 2008. The alternative of a replicated P-response experiment at a single site is largely irrelevant in this highly variable landscape.

- Black gram
Three-fold yield increases were obtained with 15-20 kg P/ha, with a possible further small increase with added K. Nodulation was good.

- Rabi experiments at Amagara
Wheat and mustard failed without added P, but yields were good with up to 50 kg P/ha. One or two irrigations (each c. 40 mm) gave yields approaching full irrigation (4-5 irrigations), apparently by promoting use of residual water in the soil after rice.

Water resource management
Conceptual models have been developed to simulate the water balance at the scales of individual intervention, small catchment (1-2 km2) or large catchment (2-300 km2). These are being used to develop water harvesting design principles and 'thumb rules' for use by agencies involved in WSD, and will be used to evaluate cumulative out-of-catchment impacts as WSD is scaled up. The farming systems model APSIM is being locally parameterised to explore long-term viability of alternative crop options, the costs and benefits of short-duration rice, and alternative irrigation strategies.

This project uses participatory action research to develop principles and improved practices for Watershed Development (WSD) for the high rainfall East India Plateau (EIP). Villagers participate in an action learning cycle (Plan, Do, Observe, Reflect) which guides the overall project as well as most activities.
Key Findings
Process - It has emerged that villager's perceptions about themselves and their resources change, and activities succeed, when villagers genuinely control the implementation of projects, whether the resources are supplied by the project or by the villagers. This degree of control can be problematic for implementing agencies, but is nevertheless essential.
Developing social capacity and improving agronomic practise (human capacity)
The idea was extended from Amagara to Pogro of using a Village Core Committee (VCC) comprised of Self Help Group (SHG) representatives to improve project implementation and build social capacity, by shifting ownership, responsibility and control from the team to the villagers. In Pogro, the VCC oversaw (with project support) the initial implementation of the watershed development plan during the dry season of 2007/08 and its recent completion. Initial implementation focused on part of the watershed, including a 'learning cluster' of 6 families. The cluster is a focal point for the whole village and surrounding communities to 'action-learn' about the effective use of water resources.
Learning activities have been designed to develop agronomic skills (capacity) and transform farmer's self perceptions and perceptions about natural resources. As an outcome, in Amagara, a linear study of land use over time has revealed significantly increased cropping intensity and crop diversity. Case studies reveal major improvement in the livelihoods of individual families. In a turnaround in perceptions, agriculture is seen by the community in Amagara as a viable livelihood, with 80 of 146 Amagara families reporting income improved substantially, by at least Rup 15,000.
Gender studies have shown that family-wise action which engages with women as farmers, not merely as members of an SHG, builds individual self-confidence more strongly and exposes women to a wider set of ideas, apparently without alienating men.
Developing crop options and farming systems
Kharif soil and paddy management survey - 54 sites/fields over two watersheds were surveyed in 2008. Differences in fertility within and between land classes mirrors previous years. Mean yield was slightly less than previously because of lower yields in medium-upland, much of which succumbed to dry conditions late in the monsoon. Many drought-affected crops at Pogro had ample soil water to 'finish' the crop, so the possibility of low subsoil pH/Al toxicity is being examined, which may inhibit root growth and subsoil water-use. High rainfall early in the monsoon made N management more difficult, accounting for some of the variation in lowland yields.
Omission trial - nutrition studies - The nutrition-response work adopted an omission trial approach, in which the nutrients examined were P, K and Zn, with P at two rates. Unlike previous years, there was no response to either P or K at either watershed. Participating farmers remain convinced about the responses to P and K overall, explaining the lack of response in 2008 in terms of site selection/management and drought. Lack of nutrient responses made it impossible to evaluate the omission trial approach against earlier approaches tried in the project. A pot experiment confirmed that large responses to superphosphate are to the P, not S.
Alternatives to paddy rice
Upland, direct-seed rice succeeded at Amagara, despite a short monsoon. Mean yield was 2.4 t/ha. Yield variation (1.3-4.6 t/ha) was apparently related to soil water availability. We can now formulate recommendations that should allow for modest yields with low risk of failure in upland sites, with soil fertility maintained. Direct-seeded rice again performed poorly at Pogro, possibly because growth slowed with the onset of dry conditions, again suggesting the possibility of Al toxicity.
Black gram nutrition and weed management experiments failed because of late planting. This failure emphasises the need for farmers to perceive black gram as a premium crop and treat it accordingly once line-sowing and improved nutrition have been adopted. It has traditionally been treated as a low-yielding subsistence crop, which is broadcast.
Early-season vegetable production in Amagara has continued to expand although it is no longer a focus for the project. Most villagers now crop vegetables in the late monsoon, and into the rabi.
In the 2008/09 rabi at Amagara, mustard work focused on helping selected farmers to 'experience' further improved agronomy. Yields of participating farmers averaged an excellent 1.9 t/ha. At Pogro in the 'learning cluster', the focus was on improving extension processes, working with a group of families to evaluate options for using water 'harvested' from their new water harvesting structures. Credible yields of 4 t/ha from wheat and 1.6 t/ha from mustard were achieved. The learning process was documented and case studies documented of participating families.
A linear study of land-use and crop diversity at Amagara shows clearly that farmers have integrated information on new crop options, including their irrigation and fertiliser requirements, to develop much more intensive and diverse systems. The APSIM cropping systems model has been parameterised to support further exploration of farming systems options.
Water resource management
Observations of the climate, coupled with observations of water fluxes and storages (discharge from study site, pond water levels, as well as shallow and deep groundwater table) have been used to develop models simulating the hydrologic behaviour of selected interventions. This includes structures to hold water in upland areas as well as structures that can tap into shallow groundwater systems in the lower parts of the catchment. Based on these observations and models, guidelines to help with the design of watershed development work have been developed to assist the planner with determining what interventions would be suitable in specific areas, and estimating the volume of potentially 'harvestable' water. These guidelines have been applied to the Pogro catchment to develop a plan for intervention.

Participatory action research is being used to develop principles and improved practices for Watershed Development for the East India Plateau (EIP). Villagers participate in a learning cycle (Plan, Do, Observe, Reflect) which guides the overall project and most activities.
Community engagement processes for upscaling
PRADAN (Purulia) implemented a program to reach 5,000 families in 2010, starting them on the road to improved livelihoods through better use of land and water resources. This program applies project findings that (i) implementation improves when women are engaged equally with men (and continually re-engaged) in learning and deciding about improving livelihoods through agricultural innovation, (ii) substantial improvements in livelihoods demands radical changes in farming systems to better use natural resources and (iii) an adult-learning approach rather than demonstrations of technological packages facilitates complex change, fosters independence, and minimises NGO-dependency. Resource-poor families are being helped to envisage improved livelihoods through agriculture, plan new farming systems including a range of crop options, and develop locally-relevant practices that make better use their resources. This program takes radically new ideas arising from the project to large numbers of people using the resources normally available to an NGO.
Understanding the resources and developing crop options and farming systems
Rainfall was low across India in 2009. Good opening kharif rains from 30th June in Pogro (a project site) allowed cultivation and establishment of rice nurseries, but poor rainfall delayed transplanting until August. The monsoon finished early (late September). Most rice yielded poorly, except for earlier sown lowlands. Research focussed on consolidating learning and developing training and decision support material.
Soil fertility An experiment with potassium in 2009 across 24 farmer's fields confirmed earlier responses in rice at Pogro (16% yield increase with 30 kg K/ha), but only in the kanali and bohal (lowlands) that have long been used for rice and are lowest in exchangeable K.
Previously we reported unexpectedly severe P-deficiency in crops, including rice, along with high between-field variability. A decision support 'tool' has been developed for rice and several non-flooded kharif and rabi crops. It can be used with a soil test, but is best suited for use by farmers conducting fertiliser test strips. This is preferred because high field variability means each field needs to be tested, which is impracticable for poor farmers with several fields. A generic P response curve relates soil P to crop yield for different crops. Users determine where a field lies on the curve by measuring soil P or crop response to added P in a fertiliser test strip. The curve is divided into three zones, unresponsive (no need for P-fertiliser - but periodically conduct a test-strip), highly responsive (add 2x expected P removal by a crop, except to flooded rice - P removal is provided in a look-up table - because highly P-deficient soils 'fix' about half the P applied into unavailable forms, and marginally responsive (replace expected P removal by the crop). This approach puts the farmer in control of finding out about fertilisers.
Crop options Previously we reported on good results with directed-seeded upland rice (DSR) in Amagara. The potential for DSR to combat climate variability was revealed in a case study in 2009. This farmer planted DSR on early rain, whilst the interrupted monsoon delayed or prevented transplanting of lowland rice. The upland variety used with DSR was unaffected by the dry period following the early monsoon rain, and being quick maturing it was harvested by late September to return a good yield of ~4 t/ha. There was enough rain in early October to plant a second crop which matured on residual moisture. So the farmer grew two good crops on land that was once regarded as risky for rice. Other villagers harvested little or no transplanted rice on similar or better lands. However, DSR has not performed well at Pogro, and we suspect Al toxicity. Research into this possibility in 2009 failed to provide conclusive evidence.
Black gram is a potentially valuable crop on the EIP, but yields are low as a subsistence crop. In 2009, Pogro farmers participated in experiments to improve the agronomy, but on their initiative they treated non-experimental fields conventionally. All fields were affected by unusually severe virus disease, but the important message was that farmers are yet to perceive black gram as a cash crop. When this was discussed with farmers, they saw the value of planting small areas and managing them well, especially since market price is now >Rp 40 /kg. We are working further with farmers to change perceptions of black gram as well as to improve practices.
Vegetable production in Amagara continues to expand, although no longer a focus for the project. A linear study of land-use and crop diversity shows many villagers now grow vegetables from pre-monsoon through to the rabi, with some cropping in 2010 through to early May. Cropping into summer is risky biophysically and economically if there is insufficient water, and there is social risk associated with competition for community water resources. These risks need attention.
Farmer-learning at Pogro Here, farmers are at an earlier stage in development than Amagara. Work continued with farmers to learn how to use "harvested" water effectively for rabi crops - yields of mustard and wheat varied widely between fields, and much of this variation seemed to be associated with the effects of degraded soil structure and poor infiltration following rice. This limits the amount of water that can be applied in any irrigation without water ponding and risking poor germination and later crop damage. Following previous observations like this in Amagara, work commenced in 2009 on green manuring to address the soil problems following rice which are a barrier to adopting potentially more reliable and profitable non-flooded kharif or rabi crops on medium uplands.
A workshop to help farmers learn about their water resources was developed and tested in Pogro and Amagara.
Water resource management
Based on observations and modelled results, guidelines to help with the design of watershed development have been developed to assist the planner with determining what interventions would be suitable in specific areas, and estimating the volume of potentially 'harvestable' water. These guidelines were trialled with a group of PRADAN professionals. A new phase of the work commenced in 2010 with implementation of the intervention plan in Pogro, and the commencement of post-intervention hydrologic monitoring. New instrumentation has been installed to improve flow gauging at two catchment outlets at Pogro.

Participatory research is being used to develop principles and improved practices for Watershed Development for the East India Plateau (EIP). Villagers participate in a learning cycle (Plan, Do, Observe, Reflect) which guides the overall project and most activities. The main foci in 2010/11 were out-scaling project learning about agronomy and community engagement processes, through PRADAN (Purulia team), and finalising hydrologic work, especially rating control structures at the catchment outlets in Pogro watershed. A soil survey was conducted in Jharkhand to support out-scaling.
Rainfall was again low in East India, totalling only 553 mm at Pogro for the June-September monsoon period (average 1,200 mm), by far the driest year of the project. Little rice was transplanted across the region, and distressed migration started in September when all hope of a kharif crop had been abandoned. Despite the critical lack of water for transplanted rice, a soil water model developed in the project showed that available water for rainfed crops exceeded 50 mm from 10th July-29th October (Pogro weather data). This is sufficient to grow a crop without water stress, as evidenced by black gram, vegetables and direct-seeded (un-puddled) rice (DSR) grown in several project villages. This reinforces the finding that East India experiences 'drought' because of the susceptibility of transplanted rice to rainfall deficits and confirms that there are safe, productive alternatives, including DSR. This is the central theme of out-scaling.
Out-scaling PRADAN (Purulia team) aimed to reach 5,000 families in 200 villages in 2010. The out-scaling applies project findings that: (i) implementation improves when women are engaged equally with men in learning and deciding about improving livelihoods through agricultural innovation, (ii) significantly improved livelihoods demands radical change in farming systems and (iii) an adult-learning approach facilitates complex change, fosters independence, and minimises NGO-dependency. Resource-poor families were helped to plan new farming systems and develop locally-relevant practices to better use their resources. This applies project learning at scale, using resources normally available to an NGO, and allows for evaluation and improvement of the process.
Six PRADAN professionals were trained and community service providers (CSPs) were recruited from amongst the villagers and trained to assist with procuring inputs and providing day-to-day technical support to families. Representatives from women's self-help groups (SHGs) were formed into Agriculture Management Committees (AMCs) and trained to support the process of change. Participating families paid an Rs25 fee to the Federation of SHGs, partly covering costs of participation.
Planning meetings facilitated by PRADAN professionals were held with ~4,000 families, of whom 2,000 'signed up' and paid their subscription fee. Families developed their own plans from a range of options explained to them. As the kharif progressed, each Professional looked after 8-10 villages, meeting every 1-2 weeks with CSP's and AMC's to make a field visit and monitor implementation and assist where needed.
Initial enrolment in the program was encouraging, but it was difficult to maintain enthusiasm with so little rain and few opportunities to implement plans. However, a survey of 537 participating families (one-quarter of participants) found 45% of families had net earnings greater than Rs7,500 from the interventions, in a year when cropping largely failed across the region. Only 20% of families made less than Rs2,500 and 20% earned more than 15,000, exceeding our target of Rs8,000 /family.
Important learning for PRADAN was that cropping plans need to be more flexible to allow families to respond to the weather (and markets), and the process needs to be streamlined to demand less professional time and be amenable to Professionals with limited agricultural experience. The role of women needs nurturing. A revised process supported by newly-developed learning tools will be used in 2011.
Understanding the resources and developing crop options and farming systems As a basis for future out-scaling, a soil fertility survey in 8 watersheds (stratified by toposequence) sampled the range of soils and rainfall in Jharkhand. Results confirmed widespread P deficiency but with high variability between fields, even in the same toposequence position in the same watershed. Thus fertilizer prescriptions must lead to inefficient fertilizer use. Site-specific nutrient management is needed, but as soil testing is not feasible other tools such as omission trials are needed. K was commonly deficient but more work is needed to assess fertilizer response.
Water resource management A new phase of the work commenced in 2010 with implementation of the watershed plan in Pogro, and commencement of post-intervention hydrologic monitoring. New instrumentation was installed to improve flow gauging at two catchment outlets at Pogro. However, with the very low rainfall there was only a single small runoff event at Pogro, and on that occasion the instruments failed.